Minority Stress and the Risk of Unwanted Sexual Experiences in LGBQ Undergraduates

Sexual assault is prevalent among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer (LGBQ) college students, but its relationship to anti-LGBQ stigma has not been established. The goal of the present study was to determine whether minority stress, specifically internalized homophobia, predicted unwanted sexual experiences among LGBQ undergraduates (N = 763), whether routine behaviors (number of consensual sexual partners and alcohol use) mediated this relationship, and whether sense of LGBTQ community was a protective factor. Significant proportions of sexual minority men (10 %), women (18 %), and non-binary or transitioning students (19 %) reported an unwanted sexual experience since entering college. Internalized homophobia was associated with greater risk of unwanted sexual experiences. It also had a negative indirect effect on unwanted sexual experience risk through a negative association with number of sexual partners. Alcohol use did not mediate the relationship between internalized homophobia and unwanted sexual experiences. Sense of LGBTQ community was associated with lower risk, mediated by lower levels of internalized homophobia. The relationships between internalized homophobia and unwanted sexual experience risk were similar for women and men. These findings demonstrate that minority stress increases LGBQ students’ risk of sexual victimization and that in-group social relationships can mitigate this risk. We argue that minority stress is an important risk factor for sexual violence. Violence prevention interventions should attempt to reduce internalized homophobia, and colleges and high schools should establish LGBQ-affirming social climates and provide resources for LGBQ students, including targeted violence prevention efforts and programs that foster a sense of supportive community.     

The impact of internalized homophobia on HIV preventive interventions

A growing body of research implicates internalized homophobia—the internalization of society's antihomosexual sentiments by gay and lesbian people—as a factor contributing to HIV-related sexual risk behavior in gay and bisexual men. Although accumulating evidence links internalized homophobia and sexual risk behavior, no study has explored the impact of internalized homophobia on efforts to prevent these behaviors. This paper examines the effect of internalized homophobia on gay and bisexual men's awareness of, participation in, and perceptions of programs offered by a community-based HIV prevention organization. In Study 1, 595 gay and bisexual men reported their levels of awareness of and participation in HIV prevention programming offered by one community organization. Internalized homophobia was negatively related to men's awareness of the services offered by the organization. However, among the men who were aware of at least one service, internalized homophobia did not further predict service utilization. Study 2 examined 89 gay and bisexual men who participated for a single session in a group-structured, community-based HIV preventive intervention. Pre- to immediate postintervention change in perceptions of condom use self-efficacy was inversely related to internalized homophobia. Internalized homophobia was also a significant negative predictor of the extent to which participants felt similar to and related well with other members of the group. Together, these findings suggest that internalized homophobia may pose multiple barriers to community-based HIV prevention efforts.     

Effect of perceived public stigma on internalized homophobia,anticipated stigma,shame, and guilt: Outness as a moderator

Although previous studies found that distal minority stress contributes to proximal minority stress and shame/guilt among the lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) population, it is unclear whether the extent to which LGB individuals' open display and discussion their sexual orientation moderates these relationships. A total of 1,452 Chinese LGB adults provided demographic information and completed measures of outness, perceived public stigma, internalized homophobia, anticipated stigma, shame, and guilt. Structural equation modelling was conducted to test the hypothesized moderation analyses. Perceived public stigma had positive associations with internalized homophobia, anticipated stigma, shame, and guilt. Outness played a moderating role in the associations of perceived public stigma with internalized homophobia, anticipated stigma, shame, and guilt. Specifically, when LGB individuals had higher levels of outness, the effects of perceived public stigma on internalized homophobia, anticipated stigma, shame, and guilt were lower. Moreover, such moderating effect did not differ by sexual orientation. The degree to which sexual minority individuals' sexual orientation is known by and openly discussed with others may lower the extent to which LGB individuals internalize sexual stigma, expect rejection after coming out, and develop shame and guilt as a result of perceived social prejudice and discrimination.     

年轻男同性恋者内化同性恋嫌恶与主观幸福感的关系：自尊与孤独感的中介效应

通过网络抽样法,采用内化同性恋嫌恶量表、自尊量表、孤独感量表、主观幸福感量表对249名年轻男同性恋者进行调查,考察当代国内年轻男同性恋者内化同性恋嫌恶的现状,并探讨内化同性恋嫌恶与主观幸福感的关系及自尊与孤独感在其间的中介效应。结果表明：（1）总体上,国内年轻男同性恋者内化同性恋嫌恶处于中等偏低水平,且有较大比例年轻男同性恋者不存在内化同性恋嫌恶。（2）内化同性恋嫌恶与积极情感、生活满意度显著负相关,与消极情感显著正相关。（3）自尊与孤独感在内化同性恋嫌恶与主观幸福感间起完全中介作用。（4）内化同性恋嫌恶通过影响自尊间接影响孤独感,又通过影响孤独感作用于主观幸福感。     

Sexual Identity,Mental Health,HIV Risk Behaviors,and Internalized Homophobia Among Black Men Who Have Sex With Men

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between sexual identity, depression, self‐esteem, HIV risk behaviors, HIV status, and internalized homophobia in Black men who have sex with men. Results demonstrated a positive relationship between depression, HIV risk behaviors, and internalized homophobia; a negative relationship with self‐esteem; and differences in internalized homophobia by HIV status (i.e., positive, negative, or unknown). Counseling recommendations are provided for working with this population.     

The Potential Role for Group Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Internalized Homophobia in Gay Men

In order to develop a healthy sense of self, gay males must developmentally move beyond feelings of self-hatred concerning their homosexuality and conquer feelings of internalized homophobia. The struggle with internalized homophobia occurs throughout the lifespan and is detrimental to the physical and mental health of gay men. In order to spur the creation of interventions, a literature review was conducted to show how group psychotherapy could be of service in ameliorating the root causes of shame central to internalized homophobia. While the literature focused on the importance to gay men of feeling a sense of belonging within the gay community—a concept similar to group cohesion—as central to creating affective interventions, group psychotherapy has yet to be sufficiently explored quantitatively in the treatment of internalized homophobia.     

Distress and Internalized Homophobia Among Lesbian Women Treated for Early Stage Breast Cancer

A convenience sample of 57 lesbian women who had been recruited for a study of adjustment to breast cancer completed measures of internalized homophobia, degree of disclosure of sexual orientation, social support, self-esteem, and distress. Consistent with our prediction, internalized homophobia related to greater distress. Contrary to our prediction, disclosure did not relate to lower distress. Path models were consistent with the position that internalized homophobia promotes distress through lower self-esteem and perceived unavailability of social support. However, the data were also consistent with a model in which low self-esteem leads to internalized homophobia by way of elevated distress. Internalized homophobia also related inversely to utilization of health care resources. Our discussion centers on the need for more information regarding this understudied population.     

Heterosexist discrimination and relational sacrifice of same-sex couples

Drawing on the family stress process model and using data from 141 same-sex couples (N = 282 partners), we examined associations between heterosexist discrimination and relational sacrifices (i.e., willingness and behaviors). We also examined the moderating roles of both partners' internalized homophobia and state-level liberalism on same-sex marriage legalization. Actor-partner interdependence moderation models were conducted. Most of our findings supported hypotheses from the family stress process model. One individual's experiences of greater heterosexist discrimination were related to the partner's higher levels of sacrifice willingness and the individual's own higher frequency of sacrifice behaviors. Such associations emerged (a) among couples living in more liberal states that legalized same-sex marriage earlier, and (b) when the individual's partner reported lower levels of internalized homophobia. Yet the moderating role of an individual's internalized homophobia was the opposite of our hypothesis. When individuals reported high (versus low) internalized homophobia, individuals' experiences of more discriminative events were related to partners' higher levels of sacrifice willingness. Collectively, our study findings highlight that—when investigating how same-sex couples forge and maintain romantic bonds—researchers should consider their experiences in the social cultural context of heteronormativity, which includes the focus on discrimination, stigma, and affirmative laws and policies.     

Collaboration Between Clergy and Mental Health Professionals: A Review of Professional Health Care Journals From 1980 Through 1999

Given the frontline role of community clergy in mental health care, this study examined how collaboration with clergy was viewed by mental health and other health professionals outside of the religious community. Searches of health care journals on Medline and PsycINFO yielded 44 articles from non‐religious journals from 1980 through 1999 that specifically addressed collaboration between clergy and mental health professionals. Seven themes were identified through content analysis, including the benefits of collaboration to each profession, the need to increase the clergy's knowledge about mental heath, and the importance of referrals. Discussion about interdisciplinary referrals significantly increased over time, r_ø (1, N = 44) = .31, p < .05).     

The Power of Shame

Abstract

The reality of lesbian partner violence has been long under-recognized and misunderstood. Treatment protocols based solely upon work with heterosexual batterers and victims are inadequate when working with lesbians. In fact, without recognizing the specific needs of lesbians, treatment may compound rather than cure the problem. This article explores lesbian battering as a response to and reenactment of cultural oppression, internalized homophobia, and religious/psychological shame. The cycle of domestic violence can be the acting out of the traumatization of homophobia/heterosexism, compounded by sexual and religious shaming. A theology of liberation and the psychology of healing from trauma are explored as critical ingredients to treating victims and perpetrators.     

Affective Guidance of Sexual Identity Construction: The Intra-psychological Level in the Service of Culture

A look at homophobia from the perspective of dialogical self provides an opportunity to investigate the intra-psychological level of its psychological bases. Homophobia is a result of socio-cultural guidance of internalization. It can be viewed as an internalized, transformed, and integrated social message that has penetrated the personal core of the self and which becomes externalized in various social contexts. Through the internalized personal construction of homophobia we can observe how social control by institutions reaches its maximum extension into the human mind.     

Stigma, social context, and mental health: lesbian and gay couples across the transition to adoptive parenthood

This is the first study to examine change in depression and anxiety across the first year of adoptive parenthood in same-sex couples (90 couples: 52 lesbian, 38 gay male). Given that sexual minorities uniquely contend with sexual orientation-related stigma, this study examined how both internalized and enacted forms of stigma affect the mental health of lesbians and gay men during the transition to parenthood. In addition, the role of contextual support was examined. Higher perceived workplace support, family support, and relationship quality were related to lower depressive and anxious symptoms at the time of the adoption, and higher perceived friend support was related to lower anxiety symptoms. Lower internalized homophobia and higher perceived neighborhood gay-friendliness were related to lower depressive symptoms. Finally, individuals with high internalized homophobia who lived in states with unfavorable legal climates regarding gay adoption experienced the steepest increases in depressive and anxious symptoms. Findings have important implications for counselors working with sexual minorities, especially those experiencing the transition to parenthood.     

Hospitalized psychiatric and medical patients and the clergy

Earlier research suggested that persons in a community with significant psychiatric disorders seek relief from their clergy as often as from trained mental-health professionals. In this research, contacts with clergy about current hospitalization by matched samples of inpatient psychiatric (N=51) and medical/surgical (N=50) patients were compared, as were responses to structured interviews about the importance of religion, religious affiliation, and participation, spiritual needs, and spiritual well-being. The findings suggest that the two groups were similar in demographics, the degree to which religion was a source of strength and comfort in their lives, and percentages reporting as having a clergy person; the group of hospitalized psychiatric patients was significantly less likely, however, than the sample of medical/surgical patients to have discussed their current hospitalization with their clergy persons. Possible causes for this difference as well as areas of further research are discussed.     

God,Sex and Power

Abstract

After twenty years of reform, most church leaders can give an ethical analysis about why clergy sexual abuse is bad. Yet when many churches respond to complaints, committees are frequently inept in holding clergy abusers accountable, and clergy leaders are still likely to abuse their power over others. This article focuses on understanding clergy sexual abuse as a tangle of pathologies of theology, power and sexuality.     

Internalized Homophobia and Intimate Partner Violence in Young Adult Women’s Same-Sex Relationships

This study examined the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV), internalized homophobia, and psychological maladjustment in a convenience sample of young adult women. Rates of psychological and physical abuse in women’s same-sex relationships were shown to be commensurate to previously reported rates of violence in the IPV literature; rates of sexual coercion were also ascertained. A relationship was found between Moral and Religious Attitudes Toward Lesbianism (MRATL), a dimension of internalized homophobia, and the perpetration of sexual coercion. As expected, internalized homophobia was connected to psychological maladjustment. In addition, both the perpetration of psychological aggression and physical violence were associated with emotional instability. The study findings are discussed within the current body of literature on IPV.     

Fear of Intimacy as a Mediator of the Internalized Heterosexism-Relationship Quality Link Among Men in Same-Sex Relationships

This study examined the relationship between internalized heterosexism (also known as internalized homophobia) and fear of intimacy and relationship quality among 88 men in a same-sex romantic relationship. Findings revealed that internalized heterosexism was positively correlated with fear of intimacy (r = .49) and negatively correlated with relationship quality (r = ?.43). In addition, results indicated that fear of intimacy partially mediated the relationship between internalized heterosexism and relationship quality. That is, the data were consistent with the notion that internalized heterosexism leads to more fear of intimacy, which in turn leads to less relationship quality among sexual minority men. Finally, the variables in the model accounted for 28 % of the variance in relationship quality scores. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.     

Gay male sexual assault survivors: the relations among internalized homophobia, experiential avoidance, and psychological symptom severity

This study explored the relations among internalized homophobia (IH), experiential avoidance, and psychological symptom severity in a community sample of 74 gay male sexual assault survivors. Results indicated that IH is associated with both depressive and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. IH accounted for more variance than assault severity in predicting both PTSD and depression symptom severity. IH and experiential avoidance similarly predicted PTSD symptom severity. In comparison with IH, however, experiential avoidance is a stronger predictor of depression symptom severity. Results also showed that experiential avoidance partially mediated the relation between IH and both depressive and PTSD symptom severity. The implications of these findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.     

同性恋者的内化同性恋嫌恶：形成及影响机制

内化同性恋嫌恶是同性恋者经历对外界偏见的内化过程后,所形成的对自身性取向的负性态度。本文在回顾和分析内化同性恋嫌恶形成及影响机制相关研究的基础上,尝试提出整合性的内化同性恋嫌恶形成/影响机制假设模型。最后,本文提出进一步验证和发展内化同性恋嫌恶形成/影响机制模型、考察缓解内化同性恋嫌恶影响的保护因素及加强内化同性恋嫌恶的本土化研究是未来的研究方向。     

PSYCHOLOGICAL OUTCOMES AMONG LESBIAN SEXUAL ASSAULT SURVIVORS: AN EXAMINATION OF THE ROLES OF INTERNALIZED HOMOPHOBIA AND EXPERIENTIAL AVOIDANCE

This study explored the relations among internalized homophobia (IH), experiential avoidance, and psychological symptom severity in a community sample of 72 lesbian sexual assault survivors. Results indicated that IH is associated with both experiential avoidance and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. In addition, experiential avoidance is related to both PTSD and depression symptom severity. Finally, experiential avoidance completely mediated the relation between IH and PTSD symptom severity. The implications of these findings are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.