Reward, cost, and self-evaluation procedures for disruptive adolescents in a psychiatric hospital school

Sixteen pupils in a psychiatric hospital were assigned to two tutorial reading classes and balanced on six pupil characteristics and teacher preferences for the children. The effects of reward and cost procedures in a token program were assessed using both within- and between-subject comparisons in the following phases: (1) Baseline; (2) Token I, teacher evaluated and reinforced children for appropriate behavior; (3) Withdrawal of Tokens; (4) Token II, same as Token I; (5) Token III, same as Token I and II, but switched order of class meeting time; and (6) Self-Evaluation, students rated their own behavior and received prizes based on their rating, rather than the teacher's rating. The token program was markedly successful in reducing disruptive behavior and in increasing reading skills in both the Reward and Cost Classes, but there were no significant differences in the effects of the reward versus the cost procedure. While cost may be seen as a punishment procedure, there were no adverse side effects observed in the Cost Class at any time when the token program was in effect. The order of the classes was unrelated to the level of disruptive behavior or academic progress. The Self-Evaluative Phase, in which the students rated their own behavior, was included as an alternative to the abrupt withdrawal of tokens. In this phase, disruptive behavior remained at the previous low level.     

A TOKEN REINFORCEMENT PROGRAM IN A PUBLIC JUNIOR-HIGH SCHOOL1

In recent years, the technology of contingency management has been shown to be of increasing value in regular classrooms and public-school systems with both groups and individual pupils (Ayllon and Roberts, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7 , 71–76; Glynn and Thomas, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7 , 299–306; Lovitt and Curtiss, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2 , 49–53; Lovitt and Smith, Exceptional Children, 1974, 40 , 357–358; Medland and Stachnik, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5 , 45–51). In addition, established procedures are being systematically replicated across grade levels and differing subject-matter areas. A series of studies initiated by O'Leary and Becker (Exceptional Children, 1967, 33 , 637–642) form the basis for the present investigation. The token reinforcement program described by O'Leary and Becker (Exceptional Children, 1967, 33 , 637–642) was managed by the teacher of an adjustment class and involved 9-yr-old children described as emotionally disturbed. An elaborate replication of the 1967 O'Leary and Becker study conducted by O'Leary, Becker, Evans, and Saudargas (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2 , 3–31) with a grade-two class introduced several variables to examine their separate effects. The authors specified their treatment levels as baseline, classroom rules, educational structure, teacher praise and ignore, token I, withdrawal, token II, and follow-up. The present research modified the general design of O'Leary et al., (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2 , 3–31) to study how to maintain treatment effects. In the modification, rules were eliminated as a treatment variable because they are frequently associated with aversive practices in the school system, and it was deemed desirable to have mainly a positive orientation. A second difference was that the present subjects were grade-nine pupils functioning in the regular public-school system. The six students were older (average age = 16.2) and well behind their peers in achievement. They were considered behavior problems and as potential dropouts by teachers and counsellors. They were not considered to be emotionally disturbed. Finally, procedures designed to maintain behavior change generated by the token system were added. The operant level of unacceptable classroom behavior was obtained for six students receiving an individualized program of instruction in mathematics and science in a nonacademic grade-nine class in a public junior secondary school. Initially, two conditions (educational structure and praising appropriate behavior while ignoring inappropriate behavior) were introduced successively. Both procedures reduced inappropriate behavior slightly. When a token system, using backup reinforcers readily available in the school, was introduced in conjunction with the initial two conditions, inappropriate responses declined dramatically in all subjects. Withdrawal of the token program for a three-week period, leaving educational structure and praising and ignoring in effect, increased inappropriate behavior in five of the six subjects. The token program was then re-introduced in conjunction with contingency contracts. The result was a decline of inappropriate behavior below the mean of the first token condition for all subjects. Tokens were thinned and finally removed toward the end of this condition, leaving teacher praise and attention and the contract system in effect. Data obtained during a four-week followup indicated that the low level of inappropriate behavior was maintained in all subjects. This extension of the O'Leary et al., (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2 , 3–31) program, designed and implemented by the regular teacher, demonstrates that these procedures may be highly effective within the constraints found in an ordinary classroom in the junior secondary school.     

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF REINFORCEMENT,RESPONSE COST,AND MIXED PROGRAMS ON CLASSROOM BEHAVIORS1

Six elementary school children served as subjects in an experiment comparing the relative effectiveness of (1) token reinforcement, in which children received tokens for attending and for correct arithmetic performance; (2) response cost, in which children received “free” tokens at the start of a period but lost them for inattention and for arithmetic performance below a specified level; and (3) a combination of both token reinforcement and response cost. During training, the six subjects received all three procedures in counterbalanced sequence. The effects of the three procedures were assessed by a within-subject comparison divided into three phases: (i) baseline, (ii) training, (iii) withdrawal of tokens. Introduction of the three token procedures markedly increased the two dependent measures. However, there were no differences across the procedures in the amount of change produced in either attending behavior or arithmetic performance. During baseline, the subjects averaged 29% attending behavior and 6.4 correct problems. These levels increased to 85% for attending behavior and 11.4 correct problems for arithmetic performance during training. Removal of all token procedures significantly decreased attending behavior (to an average of 65%), but produced a nonsignificant reduction in arithmetic performance (to an average of 7.6 correct problems). There was evidence that this lack of differential effects of the three token procedures was not due to an inability to discriminate among them. Furthermore, the subjects were evenly divided in their preference for the three procedures.     

THE EFFECTS OF A GOOD-BEHAVIOR CONTRACT ON THE CLASSROOM BEHAVIORS OF SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTS1

The effects of a good-behavior contract on the on-task behavior, disruptive behavior, daily assignment completion, and weekly grades of four sixth-grade students were examined in a public school classroom. The contract consisted of presenting the students with a list of good conduct and assignment completion goals and a list of disruptive behaviors coupled with a list of rewards and penalties that could be earned. The rewards and penalties made use of existing facilities and classroom privileges. At the beginning of each morning work period, the teacher negotiated the good-behavior contract with each experimental subject. During the negotiations, the teacher emphasized student self-management and encouraged each student to earn a reward by achieving the good-conduct goals and completing the contract assignments. An isolated work area was provided to allow students the opportunity to remove themselves from their desks for a fixed period of 15 min. At the end of the work period, the teacher determined whether each student earned a choice of reward or penalty dependent on assignment completion and whether the teacher had observed disruptive behaviors. Thus, the contract permitted the student to negotiate the goal behaviors and contingencies with the teacher. Throughout the study, the students were in agreement with the teacher on whether a choice of reward or penalty had been earned. The contract was introduced for different children at different times, constituting a multiple-baseline analysis. On-task behavior and daily assignment completion increased, weekly grades were higher, and disruptive behavior decreased when the contract was in effect. Three contrast subjects were selected from the class as model students who consistently produced acceptable assignments and who did not engage in high rates of disruptive and/or off-task behaviors. When the contract was in effect for the experimental subjects, their performance compared favorably with the contrast subjects, who never received the daily contract. The results demonstrated that the contract was effective within the confines of the facilities and contingencies readily available in a public school classroom setting.     

Discrimination learning of delinquent boys as a function of reinforcement contingency and delinquent subtype

Previous research has demonstrated the effectiveness of contingency management as a means of behavioral resocialization with delinquent boys on an individual basis. The present study was designed to examine and clarify systematically the reinforcement parameters that underlie the male delinquent's response to verbal and token reward and/or punishment. The principal findings of the study were: (1) Neurotic subjects performed at the highest level for punishment, at the lowest level for reward, and at an intermediate level for a combination of reward and punishment, regardless of verbal or token contingency modality. (2) Psychopathic subjects performed best for the joint verbal reward and punishment contingency, but they did not learn over trials for the joint token reward and punishment contingency. Their performance was undifferentiated at asymptote under the separate verbal and token reward or punishment contingencies. (3) Neurotic subjects performed at a significantly higher level than did psychopathic subjects for verbal and token punishment, while psychopathic subjects performed at a significantly higher level than neutric subjects for verbal and token reward.The authors wish to thank the staff and students of the Lookout Mountain School for Boys and the Golden Gate Youth Camp at Golden, Colorado, for their cooperation in this study. Special thanks are due to Mr. Loren Adlfinger, director, and Mr. George Taylor of the Lookout Mountain School for Boys, and to Mr. John P. McIlwee of the Golden Gate Youth Camp. The study was submitted in 1974 by the first author to the Graduate School of the University of Colorado in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy in clinical psychology.     

The use of a "token helper" in the management of classroom behavior problems and in teacher training

A grade-four class teacher was trained in the use of token and verbal reinforcement by an experienced "token helper", who demonstrated the procedures in the classroom. The introduction of a simple token system resulted in significant decreases in the disruptive behavior of 10 pupils in two morning periods. When the token helper withdrew from the classroom, the teacher managed the token system and maintained disruptive behavior at lower than baseline levels.     

The effects of token reinforcement,feedback and response cost on standardized test performance

The primary purpose of the present study was to compare the differential effects of token reinforcement, feedback, and response cost on the test performance of delinquent boys. Eighty students were randomly assigned to three experimental groups and one control group of 20 subjects each. Each experimental group received a standard and a modified administration of the verbal section of the WISC. For the token reinforcement group, the modified WISC administration permitted students to earn tokens contingent on correct responses; the response cost group forfeited tokens contingent on incorrect responses; and the feedback group simply received information regarding the accuracy of each response. The control group received two standard WISC administrations. The primary measure was the difference in verbal I.Q. scores between the standard and modified WISC administrations. Results indicated that the token reinforcement and response cost groups achieved significantly higher scores than the feedback and control groups. No significant differences were found between the token reinforcement and response cost groups nor between the feedback and control groups. The implications of these findings for clarifying the relationship between motivational condition and test performance are discussed.     

Effects of token reinforcement and response cost on the accuracy of spelling performance with middle-school special education students with behavior disorders

The effects of token reinforcement and response cost on the accuracy of spelling performance with three adolescent special education students were examined. A multiple-baseline design across students was used to evaluate the effects of token reinforcement and response cost intervention. A greater percent of accuracy on daily spelling exams was obtained during the token reinforcement plus response cost condition than during the baseline condition. This was replicated for each student. Follow-up data collection indicated maintenance of behavior change over time. The benefits of implementing a token economy with a response cost component with middle-school students with behavior disorders were discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Response cost in mainstreamed settings

This study illustrates the use of a response cost token system to decrease inappropriate behaviors of mainstreamed students in the regular classroom milieu. Data were taken on a student's inappropriate request for teacher attention and another student's inappropriate verbalizations. A reversal design was employed. Results showed that a response cost token system was a viable and effective method for decreasing inappropriate behaviors of mainstreamed students in the regular classroom. Reasons for the effectiveness of this technique were discussed.     

Maintenance of appropriate behavior in a token program

Following a baseline period, a token reinforcement program was instituted in three resource-room classes for very disruptive children where the children spent 1 hour per day. The only reinforcers used in the token program were those available to any classroom teacher, viz., free time in an activity area. The effects of the token program were evaluated in the three resource-room classes as well as in the homerooms of all students participating in the resource-room program. Following 4 months of the token program, a return to baseline was made in one resource classroom. As assessed by standard classroom observations, the token program was effective in reducing disruptive behavior in all three resource-room classes; and when it was withdrawn in one resource-room class, the disruptive behavior remained at a very low level in the resource room. Ratings by teachers in the homerooms showed a significant reduction in disruptive behavior, but recordings by homeroom observers showed no such reduction. Possible reasons for maintenance of low rates of disruptive behavior after withdrawal of tokens were discussed in terms of the type of reinforcers used.     

On the distinction between open and closed economies.

Open and closed economies have been assumed to produce opposite relations between responding and the programmed density of reward (the amount of reward divided by its cost). Experimental procedures that are treated as open economies typically dissociate responding and total reward by providing supplemental income outside the experimental session; procedures construed as closed economies do not. In an open economy responding is assumed to be directly related to reward density, whereas in a closed economy responding is assumed to be inversely related to reward density. In contrast to this predicted correlation between response-reward relations and type of economy, behavior regulation theory predicts both direct and inverse relations in both open and closed economies. Specifically, responding should be a bitonic function of reward density regardless of the type of economy and is dependent only on the ratio of the schedule terms rather than on their absolute size. These predictions were tested by four experiments in which pigeons' key pecking produced food on fixed-ratio and variable-interval schedules over a range of reward magnitudes and under several open- and closed-economy procedures. The results better supported the behavior regulation view by showing a general bitonic function between key pecking and food density in all conditions. In most cases, the absolute size of the schedule requirement and the magnitude of reward had no effect; equal ratios of these terms produced approximately equal responding.     

Efficacy of and preference for reinforcement and response cost in token economies

Researchers have shown that both differential reinforcement and response cost within token economies are similarly effective for changing the behavior of individuals in a group context (e.g., Donaldson, DeLeon, Fisher, & Kahng, 2014; Iwata & Bailey, 1974). In addition, these researchers have empirically evaluated preference for these procedures. However, few previous studies have evaluated the individual effects of these procedures both in group contexts and in the absence of peers. Therefore, we replicated and extended previous research by determining the individual effects and preferences of differential reinforcement and response cost under both group and individualized conditions. Results demonstrated that the procedures were equally effective for increasing on‐task behavior during group and individual instruction for most children, and preference varied across participants. In addition, results were consistent across participants who experienced the procedures in group and individualized settings.     

Effects of implementing a token economy on teacher attending behavior

After systematic attempts to increase a teacher's positive responding to her first-grade students, a token-economy system was implemented as a "last resort". On-task student behavior and relative frequency of positive and negative teacher comments were systematically observed. Data indicated that institution of the token system was associated with a relatively higher percentage of positive than negative comments. Termination and re-implementation of the token system caused reversals of the teacher's behavior.     

The treatment of "anxiety-depression" via positive reinforcement and response cost

A target behavior program, structured within a token economy project, was implemented to modify the behavior of an institutionalized patient who exhibited excessive rates of crying and no smiling responses. To affect both responses concurrently, token costs were made contingent upon crying and token payments and/or social reinforcements were provided for smiling. The results indicated both the feasibility of eliminating "anxiety-depression" within an institutional environment and the efficacy of the treatment procedures 14 months after discharge.     

A Review of: “Kennedy-Moore,E., & Lowenthal,M. S. (2011). Smart Parenting for Smart Kids: Nurturing Your Child's True Potential.”

Behavioral procedures aimed at decreasing disruptiveness through increasing self-evaluative skills and programming generalization in a class of disruptive retarded children were examined. Phases of the study included: (a) baseline; (b) systematic feedback; (c) a token economy; (d) matching of teacher's ratings by students; (e) four fading phases during which progressively fewer students were required to match the teacher; (f) self-evaluation during which each student received the amount of points self-allotted regardless of teacher's ratings; (g) doubling of point costs of back-up reinforcers ("Inflation"); (h) complete removal of back-up reinforcers ("Points Only"); and (i) return to baseline conditions. The class was observed 5 days per week dueing a morning experimental period and several times per week in the afternoon as a measure of generalization. Additional measures of generalization included days when the token program was not in effect ("Off Days") and when the class was taught by a substitute teacher. Behavior was recorded according to an interval sampling observational code. The results showed that systematic feedback was effective in significantly reducing disruptiveness with even greater reductions resulting from the token program and the subsequent matching and fading phases. Decreased levels of disruptiveness were maintained throughout self-evaluation and the phases which followed. Decreased levels of disruption also generalized to afternoon sessions, to days when the experimental procedures were not in effect, and to self-evaluate, the class initially matched the teacher's ratings with about 50% accuracy. This gradually increased to consistently above 90% during the latter phases. The study demonstrated that retarded children can learn to accurately observe and veridically evaluate their own behavior, and that this has beneficial effects in terms of decreased disruptiveness.     

Scaling Incentives: Determining Preference and Indifference in 8- to lO-Year-Old Girls

The present study adopted procedures similar to those used by Logan (1965) to determine choice behavior in children. The objective was to provide an improved methodology in delay-of-gratification studies, thus avoiding the problems associated with scaling different kinds of rewards, and to provide approximate functions relating a delay-of-token reward to choice behavior. Thus, 7 girls aged 8 to 10 years were exposed to a choice paradigm in which a larger reward (2 tokens) was pitted against a smaller reward (1 token); access to these rewards was delayed a certain period of time. The results of this experiment showed that as the delay of the larger reward increased, preference for the smaller reward increased in an orderly fashion. The finding that delay shifted preference from the larger to the smaller reward is discussed in relation to current theory. The results of this experiment also provide evidence for the utility of tokens in scaling incentives for choice studies.     

Self-evaluation by adolescents in a psychiatric hospital school token program

Nine adolescent boys with a history of high rates of disruptive classroom behavior were selected from a psychiatric hospital school and placed in a remedial reading class after school in which various factors in a token reinforcement program involving self-evaluation were investigated. The effects of self-evaluation, in the form of a rating the students gave themselves about the appropriateness of their classroom behavior, were first assessed. While the students' ratings of their own behavior correlated highly with the teacher's ratings and evaluations made by independent observers, the self-evaluations did not lead to a reduction in disruptive behavior. A token reinforcement program, in which the teacher rated the students' level of appropriate behavior and in which the students traded earned rating points for prizes, clearly led to a reduction of disruptive behavior. When the students were given the opportunity to evaluate their own behavior and to receive rewards in exchange for the evaluation, they returned to their former rates of disruptive behavior.     

DIFFERENTIALLY REINFORCING LOW RATES OF MISBEHAVIOR WITH NORMAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN1

Effective nonpunitive procedures for reducing counterproductive classroom behaviors are of potential benefit to both students and teachers. A recent strategy for dealing with this class of problem behaviors involves the reinforcement of acceptably low levels of such behavior. The laboratory version of this procedure, called differential reinforcement of low rates of responding (or DRL), provides for a reinforcer to be delivered contingent upon a response that is separated from the last preceding response by a minimum amount of time. To make this procedure more amenable to classroom use, the present authors have modified it so that a reinforcer is delivered if fewer than a specified number of responses occur within a preset time interval (Deitz and Repp, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6 , 457–463). Previous studies using this procedure have found it effective in reducing and maintaining low rates of targeted behaviors. However, these effects have been demonstrated with groups of subjects and/or individuals from dependent populations. The present study investigated use of this modified DRL procedure with individual students in normal elementary classrooms. In the first of three studies, “talk-outs” of an 11-yr-old fifth-grade male were reduced when nonexchangeable gold stars were made contingent on two or fewer responses per session. During baseline sessions, an average of 4.45 talkouts were observed per 45-min session. Average responding subsequently fell to 1.83 when the modified DRL contingency was applied, increased to 7.60 during a reversal phase, and dropped again to an average of 1.20 when the contingency was reapplied. In the second study, out-of-seat behavior of a 12-yr-old sixth-grade female was reduced when gold stars were made contingent on two or fewer responses per 45-min class period. Baseline responding averaged 6.10 responses per session. When the contingency was applied, average responding fell to 0.16. During the reversal period, responding increased to an average of 6.00 and fell again, after the contingency was re-introduced to an average of 0.40. In the third study, a reduction in both talking-out and out-of-seat behaviors of another 11-yr-old fifth-grade male was demonstrated with a multiple-baseline design. Using different lengths of baselines, gold stars were made contingent first on a low rate of out-of-seat behavior, and then on a low rate of talk-outs. Out-of-seat responding fell from a baseline average of 7.50 to a treatment average of 1.14. Talk-outs went from a baseline average of 4.66 to a treatment average of 1.14. In all three studies, the modified DRL procedure proved effective with the children and was manageable by the classroom teacher. For the students, nonexchangeable conditioned reinforcers (stars) were sufficient to maintain lowered rates of inappropriate behavior with the modified DRL schedule; there was no need for an elaborate token economy, a process that in many cases may be only a form of behavioral “overkill”. As in other studies investigating DRL schedules, students were not informed of their accumulation of responses; the differential effects of providing or withholding this feedback need to be investigated. Overall, these studies add single-subject replication with normal children to the literature on modified DRL procedures.     

TEACHER POPULARITY AND CONTRAST EFFECTS IN A CLASSROOM TOKEN ECONOMY

There is a common fear that the use of a token economy in one classroom might harm pupil performance in situations where the contingencies are not in effect. This study investigated potential contrast effects on measures of children's productivity and attitudes toward teachers. Six children with reading deficits participated. A multiple baseline design was used to assess the effects of a token economy which was systematically introduced across three teachers. Dependent measures included two rating forms of teacher popularity and work rate on a programmed reading series. The results indicated that the token system was effective in increasing the children's productivity and that no consistent behavioral contrast effects occurred. Furthermore, children's attitudes toward teachers did not appear to be influenced by the token economy until only one teacher was not delivering tokens. At this point, her popularity declined until she also delivered tokens. The token economy manipulation appeared to have a specific, desirable effect on the targeted behavior (i.e., work rate) and had minimal negative or positive “side effects” on teacher popularity.     

SOCIOMETRIC AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF FOUR TYPES OF TOKEN REINFORCEMENT PROGRAMS1

Children in a first-grade classroom were divided into four groups. Baseline measures of disruptive classroom behavior were taken on a well-behaved and disruptive child in each group. Following baseline, four types of token economies were simultaneously introduced and rotated every 10 days within a Latin Square design. The token economies were: (1) individual reinforcement determined by individual performance; (2) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of the most disruptive child; (3) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of the least disruptive child; (4) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of a randomly chosen child. The token economies were compared on their effectiveness in changing target behavior, preference by the targets, ease of use, and cost. Additionally, sociometric responses were taken on questions of responsibility, friendship, and funniness. Results showed a significant decrease of inappropriate behavior for the disruptive children and no difference between the effectiveness of the four types of token economies in producing behavior change. However, there were other differences that indicated that the system in which group reinforcement was determined by a randomly selected child would be desirable for most teachers. Results also showed changes in the sociometric status of the disruptive children. As predicted, disruptive children were rated as more responsible when they were in the group reinforcement determined by the most disruptive child in the group token economy. Using behavior modification techniques indirectly to change sociometric status is suggested as offering a new potential technique for behavior change agents.