认知资源和信息类型对大学生职业印象形成的影响

采用加工分离程序,探讨了认知资源和信息类型对大学生职业印象形成的影响及其心理加工机制。结果表明：(1)印象形成受到包括认知资源的限制、刻板化信息和个体化信息的典型性等多种因素的影响。刻板化信息间接地对印象形成起作用。个体化信息的作用远大于认知资源。(2)在印象形成过程中,控制性加工和自动化加工是并行的。(3)刻板化信息以内隐的自动化加工为主,个体化信息加工则存在外显与内隐两种方式。     

广告中人物角色的性别刻板印象效应

研究选取广告的呈现方式、呈现时间及广告词的呈现方式为变量,探查了广告中人物角色的性别刻板印象效应.结果发现:(1)广告中的性别刻板印象与三种因素之问存在交互作用,但在不同的启动条件下其作用方式不同;(2)伴随着广告出现的功能性介绍增强人们对产品的需要程度,而具有艺术性设计的广告词增强人们对产品的喜欢程度;(3)刻板化状态影响判断标准,高刻板化程度者的判断标准更严格.     

知觉冲突印象形成的认知控制策略：以刻板化信息与反刻板化信息为例

以刻板化信息与反刻板化信息为例,采用词义Stroop范式和掩蔽版的目标-启动范式分别将实验任务分成高、低知觉负载或阈上、阈下启动两种水平,考察冲突信息知觉负载水平及其强度对他人印象形成的认知控制策略的影响。结果发现:(1)冲突信息启动方式与知觉负载的动态变化决定了个体对刻板化信息与反刻板化信息印象形成的认知控制策略。反应性控制耗费的认知资源少,对刻板一致化信息的印象加工更快捷,而对刻板冲突化信息的印象加工更缓慢,且易激活反刻板印象;而主动性控制耗费的认知资源多,对刻板一致化信息的印象加工更缓慢,而对刻板冲突化信息的印象加工更快捷,且易出现刻板印象偏差。(2)认知控制对刻板化信息与反刻板化信息采取不同的加工模式。刻板化信息与反刻板化信息同时在阈上启动时,其加工方式受到有意操作系统的主动性控制,即进行可意识到的、受意识控制的加工;而当这两类信息同时在阈下启动时,其加工方式受到自动监控系统的反应性控制,即进行无意识的、不受意识控制的加工。这些结果表明,个体通过所知觉到的刻板化信息与反刻板化信息,能灵活地在两种认知控制系统(有意操作系统vs.自动监控系统)中进行权衡,调节其权重(即,要么启动主动性控制,要么偏向反应性控制),从而形成最有利于他人的印象加工策略。即便处于知觉阈限之下,个体仍能通过无意识认知控制的方式对他人印象进行加工。     

印象形成中交叉刻板印象的加工机制

以大学生作为被试,旨在探究：在交叉刻板印象加工过程中,是否存在某一单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？如果存在,靶子熟悉度的差异是否会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势效应？该单维刻板印象加工优势效应是否还会受到其他单维刻板印象加工的调节。研究结果表明：（1）在对具有性别-年龄组合而成的交叉刻板印象的人群进行判断时,通过面孔进行启动,发现在不同的条件下分别存在性别单维刻板印象和年龄单维刻板印象的加工优势效应,即年轻男性或女性面孔的性别特征较年龄特征更容易得到加工和提取,老年男性或女性面孔的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。而在范畴词汇启动下,老年男性或女性词汇启动下的年龄特征较性别特征更具有加工优势。（2）熟悉性会影响单维刻板印象的加工优势,即在年轻被试感知面孔或范畴词汇时,其对老年男性或女性靶子间击中率的差异要显著大于对年轻男性或女性的靶子间击中率的差异。换言之,年轻被试感知老年人靶子的性别与年龄间的差异要显著大于年轻人靶子,出现自我参照现象。（3）在交叉刻板印象加工中,同时存在的各类单维刻板印象加工是彼此削弱的,具有优势加工效应的刻板印象的加工会受到非优势刻板印象加工的抑制。（4）在交叉刻板印象加工中,优势刻板印象加工会受到其相对刻板印象加工的削弱。     

广告中性别刻板印象信息的内隐效应

尝试采用以图片为实验材料及不同步骤的IAT程序测量广告中性别刻板印象的内隐效应及其操作强度,结果表明：（1）广告中的性别刻板印象具有很强的内隐效应;（2）高刻板化程度者具有更强的内隐性别刻板效应;（3）当刺激材料为图片时,不同的IAT程序测得的内隐性别刻板效应不同。     

刻板印象与特质建构关系的实验研究

根据平行-约束-满足模型的基本主张,利用情境模拟法探讨了特质激活与刻板印象的建构关系以及刻板化信息与个体化信息经由特质激活所表现出的交互影响。实验结果表明：(1)刻板印象影响特质的含义,特质会自动化地激活刻板印象,并且由特质及其具体的描述性内容所形成的个体化信息在具体的情景中联合起来影响刻板印象效应;(2)刻板印象与其他信息在加工通路上是相对独立或平行的;(3)刻板印象是兼具自动化加工与控制加工的混合体。     

高中生文理分科刻板印象的实验研究

采用2×4×2的重复测量的实验设计,探讨了性别是否会引起对于文理分科期望的刻板化加工以及刻板印象的意识性抑制问题,同时验证目前占主导地位的对范畴信息信任的减弱会增强对个体化信息的信赖这一假说。结果表明:(1)性别刻板印象会影响对文理科这种社会范畴的判断;(2)刻板印象比较顽固,较难受到意识性的抑制;(3)与刻板化信息完全相反的个体化信息的作用大于刻板化信息的作用,对刻板化信息的作用产生了一定的抑制,但无法完全抑制;(4)刻板印象与个体化信息的加工通路是平行的,同时它们彼此之间也是相互联系和限制的。     

刻板印象的意识性抑制

通过实验探讨了刻板印象的意识性抑制问题。被试为西北师范大学一年级本科生24人。结果表明：(1)性别刻板印象会影响对职业这种社会范畴的判断;(2）刻板印象效应比较顽固,较难受到意识性的抑制;（3）与刻板印象相反的个体化信息会削弱刻板印象效应;(4）刻板印象与个体化信息的加工很可能是平行的。     

内隐职业性别刻板印象、信息完整性对大学生职业决策过程的影响

采用内隐联想测验对150名大学生进行分组,选出高、低职业性别刻板印象组被试共74名（各37名）,运用信息板技术深入考察内隐职业性别刻板印象、信息完整性对个体职业决策过程的具体影响。结果表明：（1）内隐职业性别刻板印象显著影响个体职业决策的决策时间、探索深度以及探索模式;（2）信息完整性对个体职业决策的信息探索深度、探索模式以及决策满意度有显著影响,且高内隐职业性别刻板印象个体的决策满意度随信息完整性的减少而降低;（3）高内隐职业性别刻板印象的个体在信息不完整的情况下会倾向于进行更深入的信息探索。     

性别刻板印象表征的形式及神经基础

本实验采用ERP技术,考察性别刻板印象的表征。结果发现,无论启动是上位范畴、子范畴、典型样例还是反例,被试对于刻板印象不一致的表征比一致的表征均诱发了波幅更大的N400,反应时更长。并且,被试对于性别刻板印象的表征存在层级差异。研究结果表明：（1）性别刻板印象的表征存在层级结构。（2）语义启动下,性别刻板印象违背诱发N400效应。（3）性别刻板印象表征存在自上而下的由大脑额叶进行的语义分类加工。     

基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活两阶段模型

从个体建构研究视角出发, 考察了基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活过程。实验一比较了性别分类判断、启动范式以及同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配性判断三者所用反应时的差异, 结果发现, 后者显著地大于前二者, 且等于前二者之和; 面孔倒置呈现使同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率显著增大, 但其对启动范式中刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率没有影响。实验二基于同时呈现范式, 通过不同程度的面孔变形来操纵性别类别提取的难度, 更精确地探讨了基于面孔知觉的社会类别信息提取过程对刻板印象激活的影响, 结果表明, 随着从面孔中提取类别信息难度的增加, 刻板印象激活所用的反应时也逐渐增大。研究结果证实了研究者所提出的刻板印象激活两阶段模型, 即基于面孔知觉的社会类别提取阶段和刻板印象信息激活阶段, 证实社会类别激活和刻板印象信息激活是两个分离的过程, 以社会类别信息提取为目的的面孔知觉对刻板印象的激活有显著影响。     

Gender Stereotype Activation versus Lexical Semantic Activation: An ERP Study

It is an open question whether social stereotype activation can be distinguished from nonsocial semantic activation. To address this question, gender stereotype activation (GSA) and lexical semantic activation (LSA) were directly compared. EEGs were recorded in 20 participants as they identified the congruence between prime-target word pairs under four different conditions (stereotype congruent, stereotype incongruent, semantic congruent, and semantic incongruent). We found that congruent targets elicited faster and more accurate responses and reduced N400 amplitudes irrespective of priming category types. The N400 congruency effect (i.e., the difference between incongruity and congruity) started earlier and had greater amplitude for GSA than for LSA. Moreover, gender category priming induced a smaller N400 and a larger P600 than lexical category priming. These findings suggest that the brain is not only sensitive to both stereotype and semantic violation in the post-perceptual processing stage but can also differentiate these two information processes. Further, the findings suggest superior processing (i.e., faster and deeper processing) when the words are associated with social category and convey stereotype knowledge.     

Dissociating automatic associations: Comparing two implicit measurements of race bias

Weak correspondence across different implicit bias tasks may arise from the contribution of unique forms of automatic and controlled processes to response behavior. Here, we examined the correspondence between estimates of automatic and controlled processing derived from two sequential priming tasks with identical structure and timing designed to separately measure stereotypic (Weapons Identification Task; WIT) and evaluative (Affective Priming Task; APT) associations. Across two studies using predominantly White samples, three consistent patterns emerged in the data: (a) stereotypic bias was stronger for Black targets, whereas evaluative bias was stronger for White targets; (b) overall response accuracy bias correlated modestly across the two tasks; and (c) multinomial processing tree estimates of controlled processing corresponded much more strongly than estimates of automatic processing. These findings support models positing distinct learning and memory systems for different forms of race bias, and suggest that these differing forms contribute to estimates of automatic associations.     

Gender priming in Italian

The goals of the present study were (1) to determine whether grammatical gender on a noun modifier can prime recognition of the following noun, (2) to determine whether the priming effect involves facilitation, inhibition, or both, and (3) to compare performance across three different tasks that vary in the degree to which explicit attention to gender is required, including word repetition, gender monitoring, and grammaticality judgment. Results showed a clear effect of gender priming, involving both facilitation and inhibition. Priming was observed whether or not the subjects’ attention was directed to gender per se. Results suggest that gender priming involves a combination of controlled postlexical processing and automatic prelexical processing. Implications for different models of lexical access are discussed, with special reference to modular versus interactive-activation theories.     

社会信息归类过程中刻板印象的内隐效应

采用信号检测论和间接测量方法探讨社会信息归类过程中的刻板印象内隐效应。实验结果表明 :⑴范畴启动可以自动激活有关的刻板印象内容 ,说明在很大程度上刻板印象是归类过程的一种必然结果与产物 ;⑵那些在内容上与范畴启动所导致自动的刻板印象激活及其相关内容一致、不一致或相反的建构分别易于出现同化与对比效应 ;⑶在个体水平上 ,通过意识性抑制在短期内很难压制刻板印象的自动激活 ,这表明刻板印象加工在很大程度上涉及到内隐过程     

性别刻板印象及刻板信息对3～9岁儿童玩具选择的影响

采用玩具选择任务,通过对角色性别刻板玩具偏好的描述,考察3-9岁儿童对自己和他人性别刻板印象的发展状况,及外部信息对儿童选择的影响。结果表明：（1）儿童在玩具选择中表现出的性剐刻板印象在4．5岁显著增强,在7～9岁趋于稳定;（2）男孩性别刻板印象的形成先于女孩;（3）学龄前期儿童对不舍性别刻板信息的女性角色最不刻板,性别刻板信息会显著增加女孩对异性角色的刺板程度,而男孩则对自身的玩具选择最为刺板：（4）5-6岁时,儿童对自身玩具选择的性别刻板要求显著增强。总的来说,儿童的性别刻板印象受到内部认知发展和社会环境的共同作用。     

刻板印象的认知神经机制

刻板印象是大脑对社会信息的一种自动的类别化加工过程。近期脑成像的研究表明, 刻板印象的注意编码、语义表征以及抑制控制等认知成分可以分别通过相应的ERP成分表现出来; 而基于ERP源定位以及fMRI的研究表明, 杏仁核、前扣带回、大脑前额皮层以及外侧顶叶皮层附近的颞顶联结区可能参与到了它们的认知加工。最后结合已有的研究, 提出了刻板印象可能的认知通道, 并简要分析了当前研究的不足与今后的发展方向。     

Aging and stereotype suppression

Recent work in social cognitive aging has suggested that older adults are more likely than younger adults to activate and use stereotypic information, even when they intend not to. Furthermore, evidence suggests that older adults have difficulty altering their interpretation of a situation, even when it has become clear that their initial interpretation is incorrect. In the current study, younger and older adults read a series of narratives in which a character had a sex-stereotyped occupation (e.g., a plumber is stereotypically male), and the character's gender was either consistent or inconsistent with that stereotype. Explicit labeling of gender was also varied. Results revealed that with explicit labeling, older adults were able to discount their stereotypes and avoid processing difficulties when subsequent stereotype-inconsistent information was encountered. These data suggest that when counter-stereotypic information is explicitly provided at encoding, older adults are no more likely than younger adults to rely on stereotypes, and are similarly capable of altering their interpretation of a situation when information suggests that interpretation is incorrect. These findings indicate that although older adults are more prone to the influence of unwanted stereotypes, this effect can be averted and judgments can be made more egalitarian by providing older adults with explicit stereotype contradiction at encoding.