The beauty of match play

This study investigated whether higher seeded players have an advanage in the only match play event on the PGA Tour. Analysis showed that the higher seeded won 54% of the time (p=.06); the correlation was .17 (p<.01) between higher seeded players winning and the difference in World Rankings between players. Given professional golfers are at the highest end of the distribution of golf ability, these players are so nearly equal in ability, it is mainly a matter of chance who will win a match play event or who will have the best round on any given day.     

On the independence of golf scores for professional golfers

This study involved professional golfers who played in 1999 on the Professional Golfers' Association Tour (PGA Tour, N=2,967), Senior Professional Golfers' Association (SPGA Tour, N=2,751), and the Ladies Professional Golfers' Association (LPGA Tour, N=2,638) and investigated whether there is independence between golfers' scores on consecutive rounds within tournaments. The mean correlations between scores on consecutive rounds for players on the PGA Tour (r=-.08, p<.01) and LPGA Tour (r=-.03, p=.05) were negative although negligible and of little practical importance. There was a small, positive correlation (r=.27, p<.01) between scores on consecutive rounds for players on the SPGA Tour. Such evidence suggests the greater dependence of golf scores on the SPGA Tour may be due to the greater range of players' skill on that tour.     

An analysis of streaky performance on the LPGA Tour

A study investigated the occurrence of streakiness among professional golfers on the LPGA Tour. For players, individually or as a group, the findings showed a significant tendency for players' par or better rounds to occur together and for players' above par rounds to occur together. However, the observed streakiness in players' scores was related to the difficulty of golf courses rather than to any inherent disposition of players' performances to be streaky. The results replicated those findings found on the PGA Tour and Senior PGA Tour.     

Chess expertise in children

This paper reports several studies of chess expertise in children who play competitive chess. The first study examines (1) the relationship between experience and skill among 113 school-age children (grades 1 through 12); and (2) the relationship between chess skill and scores on various spatial and logical abilities tests among the top 15 players. Improvement in skill is related to experience, and chess players score higher than average on the Raven's Progressive Matrices. Also, scores on a chess-specific test, the Knight's Tour, correlate with scores on the Raven's. The second study reports three experiments with 59 Ss involving chess-specific tasks in memory, perception, and similarity judgements. The first two experiments replicated and extended Chase and Simon (1973). The third experiment, which asked Ss to judge similarities of chess positions, demonstrated that similarity judgements become more global and abstract with increased skill. The final section describes qualitatively how children's chess expertise compares to that of adults. Drawing upon Anderson (1985), we focus on some distinctive features of children's chess play and on some successful techniques in coaching young players.     

Expertise and the perception of kinematic and situational probability information

Two experiments were conducted on the nature of expert perception in the sport of squash. In the first experiment, ten expert and fifteen novice players attempted to predict the direction and force of squash strokes from either a film display (occluded at variable time periods before and after the opposing player had struck the ball) or a matched point-light display (containing only the basic kinematic features of the opponent's movement pattern). Experts out-performed the novices under both display conditions, and the same basic time windows that characterised expert and novice pick-up of information in the film task also persisted in the point-light task. This suggests that the experts' perceptual advantage is directly related to their superior pick-up of essential kinematic information. In the second experiment, the vision of six expert and six less skilled players was occluded by remotely triggered liquid-crystal spectacles at quasi-random intervals during simulated match play. Players were required to complete their current stroke even when the display was occluded and their prediction performance was assessed with respect to whether they moved to the correct half of the court to match the direction and depth of the opponent's stroke. Consistent with experiment 1, experts were found to be superior in their advance pick-up of both directional and depth information when the display was occluded during the opponent's hitting action. However, experts also remained better than chance, and clearly superior to less skilled players, in their prediction performance under conditions where occlusion occurred before any significant pre-contact preparatory movement by the opposing player was visible. This additional source of expert superiority is attributable to their superior attunement to the information contained in the situational probabilities and sequential dependences within their opponent's pattern of play.     

Bingo!: Hints of Deviance in the Accounts of Sociability and Profit of Bingo Players

This study investigates the social construction of bingo players and bingo playing. Although gambling has largely maintained its deviant reputation, bingo, as a form of gambling, remains untainted by labels of deviance. We undertook a small ethnographic study of bingo playing in a Southwestern town. Because we had very little knowledge of bingo and bingo playing when we entered the field, our original research questions reflected the central concerns of how to play bingo, who plays bingo, and why people begin and continue playing bingo. We found that the bingo world contains a complex web of assumptions and practices surrounding who should win and how to win. Information from our informal interviews suggests that players begin playing and continue playing for the hope of winning and profit and to maintain friendship networks built through playing bingo. Four preliminary domains of analysis emerged from our data: the protocol of bingo playing; and winning; the culture and superstitions of bingo; fun, profit and bingo playing; and hints of deviance among bingo players. Each domain is critical in answering our question: What is bingo?     

Protecting Self-Image: The Rationalization of Cheating in an International Billiard League

ABSTRACT

The American Poolplayers Association, founded in 1979, is an international billiard league established in the United States, Canada, and Japan, with more than 250,000 members. The most difficult problem facing the American Poolplayers Association (APA)’s league operators is the deliberate cheating by the competing players. Players cheat to lower their skill level, allowing them to win more easily in important billiard matches such as the APA international championships. Qualitative interviews revealed that when asked about their cheating behavior, the players used all five “techniques of neutralization to rationalize their actions attempting to protect their self-image and to help insulate them from external judgments.     

Departures From Sensible Play in Computer Blackjack

Gambling has been viewed as irrational, and even though blackjack offers rational strategies (i.e., Basic [E. Thorp, 1966] and card counting), people exhibit departures from rationality (e.g., “Never Bust” strategies). To determine whether departures from rational behavior reflect ignorance or fatigue, university students were provided with on-line Basic advice while playing a simplified computer blackjack. Although the on-line advice initially affected the totals these players sat on, it was eventually discarded for higher risk strategies. Irrational play did not reflect ignorance or fatigue and was not necessarily conservative. Real fluctuations of odds in blackjack may lead to situations in which Basic is not perceived by players as effective. Because Basic is not a personalized strategy, it seems less likely to be maintained in the face of losses. Players were more optimistic that they might win when utilizing their personalized strategies.     

Unsanctioned aggression in rugby union: relationships among aggressiveness,anger, athletic identity,and professionalization

Aggressive players who intentionally cause injury to their opponents are common in many sports, particularly collision sports such as Rugby Union. Although some acts of aggression fall within the rules (sanctioned), others do not (unsanctioned), with the latter tending to be less acceptable than the former. This study attempts to identify characteristics of players who are more likely to employ unsanctioned methods in order to injure an opponent. Male Rugby Union players completed questionnaires assessing aggressiveness, anger, past aggression, professionalization, and athletic identity. Players were assigned to one of two groups based on self‐reported past unsanctioned aggression. Results indicated that demographic variables (e.g., age, playing position, or level of play) were not predictive of group membership. Measures of aggressiveness and professionalization were significant predictors; high scores on both indicated a greater probability of reporting the use of unsanctioned aggressive force for the sole purpose of causing injury or pain. In addition, players who had been taught how to execute aggressive illegal plays without detection were also more likely to report using excessive force to injure an opponent. Results provide further support that highly professionalized players may be more likely to use methods outside the constitutive rules of Rugby Union in order to intentionally injure their opponents. Results are discussed within the context of the increasing win‐at‐all‐cost attitude that is becoming more prevalent in sport and its implications for youth athletes. Aggr. Behav. 35:237–243, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Departures from sensible play in computer blackjack

Gambling has been viewed as irrational, and even though blackjack offers rational strategies (i.e., Basic [E. Thorp, 1966] and card counting), people exhibit departures from rationality (e.g., "Never Bust" strategies). To determine whether departures from rational behavior reflect ignorance or fatigue, university students were provided with on-line Basic advice while playing a simplified computer blackjack. Although the on-line advice initially affected the totals these players sat on, it was eventually discarded for higher risk strategies. Irrational play did not reflect ignorance or fatigue and was not necessarily conservative. Real fluctuations of odds in blackjack may lead to situations in which Basic is not perceived by players as effective. Because Basic is not a personalized strategy, it seems less likely to be maintained in the face of losses. Players were more optimistic that they might win when utilizing their personalized strategies.     

An examination of the "hot hand" in professional golfers

A study investigated the "hot hand" among professional golfers. Hole-to-hole scores within 747 tournaments from a randomly chosen group of 35 players on the 1997 PGA Tour were analyzed. Contingency analyses gave no evidence for the "hot hand". Players were just as likely to score a birdie or better following a par or worse hole as make a birdie or better following a birdie or better hole. These results are consistent with those found for individual players in baseball and basketball.     

Prediction of wins and losses in a series of field hockey games: A study of probability assessment quality and cognitive information-processing models of players

The ability of players in a competitive team sport to assess win/loss probabilities, and the role that feedback plays in improving the quality of their assessments are the major foci of this study. The paper describes a study of sequential probability assessments by members of a women's field hockey team participating in a championship series. Several classes of cognitive models of probability revision were postulated and tested. The results of the paper indicate that (1) players generally attain a high level of calibration in their assessments, (2) their assessments are reliable and of high quality, (3) those who systematically and sensitively revise their probabilities attain, on average, significantly higher quality forecasts than those who are more conservative in responding to feedback scores, and (4) most of those who systematically revise their assessments in response to feedback scores appear to employ myopic models utilizing information about only one team—either their own or their opponents.     

应用多质-多评价者程序对评定误差的分析

应用多质 -多评价者矩阵分析绩效评定中两种常见误差 -光环效应和自我中心效应。以足球运动员为被评价者 ,以关键事件技术为职务分析方法获得绩效评定特质。以 45名被试观看足球比赛后评定的各职务特质间的相关为基础相关系数 ;两组共 8名被试观看录像剪辑并采用两种评价标准作评价 ,计算各特质评定结果间的相关系数 ,并整理为多质 -多评价者矩阵。结果表明 ,多质 多评价者矩阵可以直观显示光环效应 ;评价者在不同职务的个别特质上表现出自我中心效应。     

Relationship between emotional state and performance during international field hockey matches

The present study examined the relationship between the emotions experienced by 15 international hockey players, both immediately before and during competition, and their performance levels. Data were collected on the players' emotional states using a revised version of the Feelings Scale of Butler, which was completed retrospectively after the match was played. Players reported more annoyance and less tension during the match than before. A logistic regression correctly classified 70.2% of players from the emotional ratings immediately before the match and 85.1% of the players from the ratings during the match as either a good or poor performer. Those individuals who performed well retrospectively reported feeling Nervous and 'Quick/Alert/Active' before the game and Confident and Relaxed during the game. The results indicate that emotions fluctuate over the competition period, and in long duration sports assessment of emotion during competition predicts variation in performance better than assessment prior to competition.     

中国象棋经验棋手与新手的知觉差异:来自眼动的证据

为探讨中国象棋领域内的专长效应及象棋专长的知觉编码优势,研究采用中国象棋棋局为实验材料,对比了经验棋手和新手在观看象棋棋局时视觉搜索、变化觉察和对棋盘的记忆。实验1呈现真实棋局和随机棋局,要求被试观看5秒后复盘,结果发现经验棋手的复盘正确率高于新手;经验棋手注视棋盘的眼跳幅度和瞳孔直径更大;经验棋手更多注视棋子间而不是棋子本身。实验2采用移动窗口范式控制了观看棋盘时视野大小,结果发现经验棋手在副中央凹呈现时复盘正确率更高,而新手不受视野大小的影响。实验3采用闪烁范式要求棋手觉察变化的棋子,结果发现经验棋手的觉察速度和正确率都优于新手;而且经验棋手在报告变化前就利用中央凹和副中央凹注视到了变化的棋子。结论认为:中国象棋与国际象棋类似,也存在专长的知觉编码优势效应;经验棋手不仅对棋盘记忆更好,而且可以利用存贮的组块和长期练习经验选择性加工棋盘结构信息,利用副中央凹提取信息,具有更大的知觉广度。研究为象棋专家可以利用副中央凹加工棋盘及具有更强的知觉编码能力提供了直接的证据。     

动作视频游戏专业玩家的认知神经特征

动作视频游戏是电子竞技中受众最广、心智挑战最高的游戏项目之一。目前对动作视频游戏专业玩家的能力特征了解尚不清晰。以职业选手和排名较高的玩家为对象,横断研究发现动作视频游戏专业玩家具有更快的注意选择、更稳定的持续注意、更好的注意瞬脱表现、更高的多目标追踪能力和工作记忆容量。专业玩家更好的注意表现主要与更高的P3波幅有关,工作记忆表现与背外侧前额叶和右后顶叶等可塑性变化有关。此外,专业玩家还存在中央执行网络与多个脑网络间的功能连接增强。目前游戏训练对认知的促进程度尚不足以弥补专业玩家和新手的认知差距。基础的认知能力对玩家游戏表现的预测有限。未来可扩展更高级的游戏决策,游戏组块或游戏模式的认知研究。     

Association of birthdate with success of nationally ranked junior tennis players in the United States

The objective was to assess the effect of birthdate on successful performance in tennis by junior tennis players in the United States and to address the question of whether "birthdate effect" persisted with ongoing age toward adulthood. The national rankings and birthdates of junior tennis players in each age division were obtained from the United States Tennis Association. The number of male and female junior tennis players ranked within the top 100 in their respective age divisions with birthdates in the first half of the year were counted and compared with the number of junior athletes born in the second half of the year. A significant chi squared for birthdate by success in tennis was present in the 14 years and under and 16 years and under age divisions for boys. This effect was less for older ages. Among girls, the effect of birthdate on tennis ranking was not significant in any age group. Among male junior tennis players in the 14 years and under and 16 years and under age divisions, athletes born in the first half of the year had an advantage over those born in the second half, but not for girls.     

“Sherry’s Secret”

The case and commentaries below were developed as part of a project, Graduate Research Ethics Education, undertaken by the Association for Practical and Professional Ethics with funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF Grant No. SBR 9421897 and NSF Grant No. 9817880). The project aims at training graduate students in research ethics and building a community of scientists and engineers who are interested in and capable of teaching research ethics. As part of the project, each graduate student participant develops a case for use in teaching and writes a commentary to go with the case, and then a staff member is asked to write additional commentary on the case. The case below was written in the second year of the project and was published in Research Ethics: Cases and Commentaries edited by B. Schrag, Association for Practical and Professional Ethics, Bloomington, Indiana, Vol. II (1998). Publication of these cases and commentaries will be a recurring feature of Science and Engineering Ethics.     

“With the Game on His Stick”: The home (dis)advantage in National Hockey League shootouts

ObjectivesTo determine whether a home advantage or disadvantage is evident in loss and win-imminent situations within National Hockey League (NHL) shootouts.DesignArchival.MethodShooting percentages were analyzed from the 2006–2011 NHL seasons and shots were classified as: loss-imminent (when a miss results in a loss for the shooter's team); win-imminent (when a goal results in a win for the shooter's team); or non-outcome-imminent (when a miss or goal does not immediately determine the outcome of the game).ResultsA home advantage was evident in loss-imminent situations when a team needed to score to avoid a loss. By contrast, a home disadvantage was evident in win-imminent situations when a team was shooting to win.ConclusionThe home (dis)advantage varies across different outcome-imminent situations. Comparing home and away teams' success in specific situations within a sporting match may be a valuable way of assessing the home (dis)advantage in sports.     

Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology: Clerical Errors Corrected but Inferences Unchanged

The Yu et al. (1997) study on correlates of mean score on the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP) contained some clerical errors that are corrected here. The findings and associated inferences are basically the same after making these corrections as they were before. Academically stronger clinical psychology programs have graduates who tend to score higher on the EPPP. An additional analysis using only professional schools revealed that programs approved by the American Psychological Association and those that are not freestanding tend to produce graduates with higher scores.