Association of height and weight with second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) and sex differences

Sex difference in 2D:46 digit ratio was studied in 386 right-handed students. The lengths of index (2D) and ring (4D) fingers were measured using a caliper. Height and weight of participants were recorded. Body height correlated negatively with right- and left-hand digit ratios in the total sample (N = 386); correlations were significant for the left-hand digit ratio of men and for the right-hand digit ratio of women (no significant correlations with weight). Males had a significantly lower 2D:4D ratio than females. After controlling for height, sex differences in right- and left-hand digit ratios completely disappeared. The results suggest that height of adults reflecting prenatal hormone status may play a role in differences between men and women in 2D:4D digit ratio for right-handers.     

Age, sex, and personality correlates of self-actualization in elderly adults

The present study examined age, sex and personality correlates of self-actualization among older adults. The Personal Orientation Inventory and Personality Research Form were administered individually to 80 community men and women aged 56 yr.-84 yr. No main effect for sex was observed on inventory scores, but younger subjects (56 yr.-67 yr.) obtained higher scores than older subjects (68 yr.-84 yr.) on four subscales: Existentiality, Feeling Reactivity, Acceptance of Aggression and Capacity for Intimate Contact. Age was negatively correlated with Feeling Reactivity in both sexes; Inner-directedness decreased with age in men and Capacity for Intimate Contact diminished with age in women. For men, inventory scores were positively associated with the traits of Change and Endurance and negatively correlated with Abasement, Order and Succorance. For women, Impulsivity correlated positively and Order was associated negatively with scores on the inventory. These results suggest that the components of self-actualization are differentially influenced by age for men and women and that the traits accompanying self-actualization are sex-linked.     

Sense of humour and coping styles

This paper reports an investigation on the relationship between sense of humour and coping styles. Svebak's (1974) Sense of Humour Questionnaire (containing three scales for each of his dimensions of the sense of humour) and Lefcourt and Martin's (1986) Situational Humor Response Questionnaire and Coping Humor Scale served as measures of humour, while Plutschik's (1981) Scale for the Measurement of Coping Styles served to assess eight coping styles. A relationship was found between humour and coping for men and women with regard to Minimization and Suppression, and to a smaller extent for Blame, Mapping and Reversal. The relationship was in opposite directions for men and women with regard to Suppression and Replacement. Most humour scales correlated negatively with age for men, and positively for women. Five coping styles correlated negatively with age for men: Suppression, Seeking Succorance, Replacement, Blame and Substitution, the other three positively. For women, however, only two coping styles correlated negatively with age: Suppression and Seeking Succorance, the other six correlated positively. As in other studies on coping, sex proved to be a major moderating variable.     

Are 2D:4D finger-length ratios related to sexual orientation? Yes for men,no for women

The ratio of index and ring finger lengths (2D:4D) is thought to be a marker of prenatal androgen exposure. In a sample of over 2,000 participants, men had significantly lower 2D:4D ratios than women (d = .36 and .23 for right and left hands, respectively), and these results were consistent across ethnic groups. Heterosexual men had significantly lower (more male typical) 2D:4D ratios than gay men (d = .32 and .31 for right and left hands, respectively), and these results tended to be consistent across ethnic groups. Heterosexual and lesbian women showed no significant differences in 2D:4D ratios, after ethnicity was taken into account. The current findings add to evidence that prenatal hormonal factors may be linked to men's sexual orientation.     

Fetal exposure to androgens,as indicated by digit ratios (2D:4D), increases men’s agreeableness with women

The ratio of the length of the second finger, or digit, to the fourth finger (2D:4D) is influenced by fetal exposure to androgens; a smaller ratio indicates greater androgen exposure. We used event contingent recording to investigate the relation between the 2D:4D ratio and social behavior. Participants completed multiple records of their behavior in events in naturalistic settings; records included information about situational features such as the gender of the person with whom the person was interacting. Men were more agreeable towards women than men; this effect was significantly greater in those with smaller 2D:4D ratios. Men with smaller 2D:4D ratios were also less quarrelsome towards women than towards men. The 2D:4D ratio did not influence social behavior in women. The hormonal environment in which the male fetal brain develops may influence adult social behavior in specific contexts.     

Effect of Prenatal Androgen on Adult Personality: Greater Openness with More Female-Typical 2D:4D Digit Ratios

One hundred seven university community participants (71 female, 36 male) were evaluated on the five personality factors (NEO-FFI), and finger lengths were measured to determine the ratio of the second to fourth digit (2D:4D). It is well-established that 2D:4D ratios are an index of prenatal androgenic activity. Sex differences were found such that the men had lower 2D:4D ratios than the women for both the left and right hands, and the women indicated greater Neuroticism than the men, as reported by others. Most interestingly, greater Openness was significantly associated with more female-typical (higher) 2D:4D ratios for the entire sample. This was significant for the male sample alone, and was found at a trend level in the female sample alone.     

Digit ratios (2D:4D and other) and relative thumb length: a test of developmental stability

Sex and side differences in relative thumb length of children and adolescents have been reported by prior researchers. These findings mirror those reported for the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a likely biomarker for the organizational (permanent) effects of prenatal androgens on the human brain and body. The present study investigated relative thumb length, in particular, its associations with all possible digit ratios (2D:3D, 2D:4D, 2D:5D, 3D:4D, 3D:5D, and 4D:5D), in a sample of young adults (60 men and 64 women). Relative thumb length was less precisely measurable than direct or image-based finger-length measurements, as used in digit ratio research. There were no significant sex or side differences in relative thumb length. Contrary to expectation, thumb size was not positively correlated with any digit ratios. Relative thumb length appears to be developmentally unstable (decreases during childhood and adolescence). Additional findings, such as the magnitude ranking of sex differences in digit ratios and the comparability of direct versus image-based finger-length measurements, are also discussed.     

Socially Desirable Responding and Impression Management in the Endorsement of Love Styles

In 2 experiments, the researcher investigated the social desirability of different love styles (Eros, Ludus, Storge, Pragma, Mania, and Agape). In Experiment 1, the Marlowe-Crowne measure of social desirability (D. P. Crowne & D. Marlowe, 1960) was correlated negatively with possessive, dependent (Mania) love styles in both men and women. In men, social desirability was correlated positively with romantic, passionate love (Eros) and game-playing love (Ludus), but negatively with all-giving, selfless love (Agape). In women, social desirability was correlated positively with Agape, but negatively with Ludus. In Experiment 2, the researcher replicated these findings using an impression management manipulation (good, bad, and honest responding). The gender differences in social desirability of different love styles are explained in terms of traditional and nontraditional gender role socialization.     

Socially desirable responding and impression management in the endorsement of love styles.

In 2 experiments, the researcher investigated the social desirability of different love styles (Eros, Ludus, Storge, Pragma, Mania, and Agape). In Experiment 1, the Marlowe-Crowne measure of social desirability (D. P. Crowne & D. Marlowe, 1960) was correlated negatively with possessive, dependent (Mania) love styles in both men and women. In men, social desirability was correlated positively with romantic, passionate love (Eros) and game-playing love (Ludus), but negatively with all-giving, selfless love (Agape). In women, social desirability was correlated positively with Agape, but negatively with Ludus. In Experiment 2, the researcher replicated these findings using an impression management manipulation (good, bad, and honest responding). The gender differences in social desirability of different love styles are explained in terms of traditional and nontraditional gender role socialization.     

The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and developmental psychopathology in school-aged children

Sex steroids have important influences upon brain development and this may lead to sex differences in developmental psychopathology. Digit ratio (2D:4D) – a negative correlate of prenatal testosterone (T) – may provide further insight into the possible role of early organizational effects on such developmental psychopathology. We measured 2D:4D ratios in a group of schoolchildren in two countries (UK and Austria) and gave questionnaires assessing behavioural problems to their parents. Although there were few differences in behavioural measures between sexes (only the externalizing behaviour score was higher in Austrian boys), several correlations existed between 2D:4D and different indices of developmental psychopathology. Low 2D:4D (indicating higher prenatal T) was related to measures of total difficulties and poor conduct in both UK and Austrian children. In the UK sample, prosocial behaviour was positively related to 2D:4D in girls and hyperactivity and conduct correlated negatively with 2D:4D in boys. Associations were generally stronger for boys than for girls. We suggest that early androgen mediation effects during prenatal development increase the probability for gender-related behaviour problems.     

Gender differences in power and self-disclosure in dating and married couples

The relationship between power and self-disclosure was studied for 20 dating and 20 married couples. Power and self-disclosure scales (of feelings and of accomplishments) were constructed and administered individually. We hypothesized that: (1) Women disclose more about feelings than men. (2) Men disclose more about accomplishments than women. (3) Power is positively correlated with disclosure of accomplishments. (4) Power is negatively correlated with disclosure of feelings and weaknesses. (5) Dating men are more powerful than dating women, but there are no gender differences in power in marriage. Hypotheses 1,3, and 5 were supported. Hypotheses 2 and 4 were rejected. Our findings revealed that there were no differences in power or disclosure of accomplishments between men and women for the total group. However, a significant interaction was found between gender and marital status for power. Dating men had more power than dating women, but married women had more power than married men. Last, women disclosed more feelings than men across both groups.     

Testosterone and domain-specific risk: Digit ratios (2D:4D and rel2) as predictors of recreational, financial, and social risk-taking behaviors

Prenatal testosterone has important effects on brain organization and future behavior. The second-to-fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D), a proxy of prenatal testosterone exposure, has been linked to a wide variety of sexually differentiated dispositions and behaviors. We examine the relationship between digit length ratios (2D:4D and rel2, the length of the second finger relative to the sum of the lengths of all four fingers) and risk-taking behaviors across five domains: financial, social, recreational, ethical, and health. In a sub-sample of male Caucasians (ethnically homogeneous), lower rel2 was predictive of greater financial, social, and recreational risk-taking, whereas lower 2D:4D was predictive of greater risk-taking in two domains (social and recreational). In the full male sub-sample (ethnically heterogeneous), the only significant correlation was a negative association between 2D:4D and financial risk. A composite measure of risk-taking across all five domains revealed that both rel2 and 2D:4D were negatively correlated with overall risk-taking in both male sub-samples. No significant correlations were found in the female sub-samples. Finally, men were more risk-seeking than women across all five contexts.     

Determinants of expectancy of examination results

Abstract.— In a group of undergraduate psychology students, expectancy of examination results was found to be positively related to experienced effort (work put out for the exam) and estimated importance of success for future career, both for men and women. The assumptions that men consider success to be more important for self esteem and future career than women do, and that women consider success to be more important in connection with social acceptance than men do, were not supported. Women were found to have a lower expectancy level than men in spite of there being no sex difference as to experienced effort. It was suggested that women perceive their ability to be lower than men do. In a group of persons who were homogenous as to the importance of success for future career, incentive value of success for social acceptance correlated positively with expectancy for men, but negatively for women.     

Agency and Communion Related to Mental Health in Japanese Young Adults

Based on Bakan’s (1966) theory, Helgeson (1994) presented a conceptual model of the relationships of biological sex, agency, and communion with psychological and physical well-being. This study was designed to examine the relationships of mitigated and unmitigated agency (M, M-) /communion (F, F-) with mental health in Japanese young adults. Participants were 602 (247 men, 355 women) undergraduate students and vocational school students in Japan. The average age of the participants was 20.0 years (SD=4.1). The results showed that communion (F) was positively associated with social support, unmitigated communion (F-) was strongly and positively associated with dysphoria for both men and women, unmitigated agency (M-) was also positively associated with dysphoria for women, and agency (M) was negatively associated with dysphoria for women. Both M and F were positively associated and F- was negatively associated with self-esteem for both men and women. M may moderate F-, and social support may moderate M-, for women. Thus our findings partially supported Helgeson’s model.     

Prenatal influences on sexual orientation: digit ratio (2D:4D) and number of older siblings

Prenatal androgen levels are suggested to influence sexual orientation in both sexes. The 2D:4D digit ratio has been found to associate with sexual orientation, but published findings have often been contradictory, which may partly be due to the large ethnic diversity between and within studied populations. In men, number of older brothers has been found to correlate positively with homosexuality. This phenomenon has been explained with a maternal immune reaction, which is provoked only by male fetuses and which gets stronger after each pregnancy. Here we assessed the relationship of sexual orientation to 2D:4D ratios and number of older siblings in Finland, where the population is found to be genetically relatively homogeneous. As in many previous studies, heterosexual men had lower 2D:4D than non-heterosexual men, which supports the notion that non- heterosexual men experience higher androgen levels in utero than population norms. Contrary to previous reports, non-heterosexual women had higher 2D:4D than heterosexual women. Non-heterosexual men had more older brothers and older sisters than heterosexual men. The greater number of older sisters in non-heterosexual men indicates that there are other factors that contribute to the higher birth order of homosexual men than the maternal immunization.     

Early-life education may help bolster declarative memory in old age,especially for women

ABSTRACT

Although declarative memory declines with age, sex and education might moderate these weaknesses. We investigated effects of sex and education on nonverbal declarative (recognition) memory in 704 older adults (aged 58–98, 0–17 years of education). Items were drawings of real and made-up objects. Age negatively impacted declarative memory, though this age effect was moderated by sex and object-type: it was steeper for males than females, but only for real objects. Education was positively associated with memory, but also interacted with sex and object-type: education benefited women more than men (countering the age effects, especially for women), and remembering real more than made-up objects. The findings suggest that nonverbal memory in older adults is associated negatively with age but positively with education; both effects are modulated by sex, and by whether learning relates to preexisting or new information. The study suggests downstream benefits from education, especially for girls.     

Development, gender equality, and suicide rates

A component of the United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index which measures longevity was negatively associated -.55 with suicide rates in 37 nations for men; the correlation with the suicide sex ratio was also negative (r = -.59). Women's access to social, political, and economic power in a subsample of 26 nations, summarized in the UNDP's Gender Empowerment Measure, was positively correlated with suicide rates (r = .36 for both women and men). UNDP measures of attainment in literacy and income showed no individual relationship with suicide rates. In a multiple regression model, life expectancy was negatively related, and the Gender-related Development index was positively related, to suicide rates.     

Correlates of premarital relationships among unmarried youth in Pune district, Maharashtra, India

CONTEXT: Although premarital partnerships-whether or not they involve sex-are widely discouraged in India, some youth do form such partnerships. It is important to know more about the nature of and the factors associated with these relationships. METHODS: Data are drawn from a community-based study of 15-24-year-olds in urban slum and rural settings in Pune District, Maharashtra. Multivariate analyses were conducted to identify associations between youths' individual, peer and family factors and their experience of romantic relationships and physical intimacy, including intercourse. RESULTS: Among young men, 17-24% had had a romantic relationship, 20-26% had engaged in some form of physical intimacy and 16-18% had had sex; the proportions among young women were 5-8%, 4-6% and 1-2%, respectively. Exposure to alcohol, drugs or pornographic films and having more frequent interaction with peers were positively associated with romantic and sexual relationships for both young women and young men. Educational attainment was negatively associated with both types of relationships for young women, but only with sexual relationships for young men. Closeness to parents was negatively associated with relationships only for young women. Young women whose father beat their mother were more likely than other young women to form romantic partnerships, and those beaten by their family had an elevated risk of entering romantic and sexual partnerships. Youth who reported strict parental supervision were no less likely than others to enter relationships. CONCLUSIONS: Program interventions should ensure that youth are fully informed and equipped to make safe choices and negotiate wanted outcomes, while positively influencing their peer networks; encourage closer interaction between parents and children; and be tailored to the different circumstances and experiences of young women and men.     

Real three-dimensional objects: effects on mental rotation

The current experiment investigated real three-dimensional (3D) objects with regard to performance on a mental rotation task and whether the appearance of sex differences may be mediated by experiences with spatially related activities. 40 men and 40 women were presented with alternating timed trials consisting of real-3D objects or two-dimensional illustrations of 3D objects. Sex differences in spatially related activities did not significantly influence the finding that men outperformed women on mental rotation of either stimulus type. However, on measures related to spatial activities, self-reported proficiency using maps correlated positively with performance only on trials with illustrations whereas self-reported proficiency using GPS correlated negatively with performance regardless of stimulus dimensionality. Findings may be interpreted as suggesting that rotating real-3D objects utilizes distinct but overlapping spatial skills compared to rotating two-dimensional representations of 3D objects, and real-3D objects can enhance mental rotation performance.     

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and wearing of wedding rings

Digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker for prenatal androgen levels, and absolute finger length, a marker for pubertal androgen action, were not associated with wearing of wedding rings in a sample of 150 male and 199 female married individuals. This failure to replicate associations previously reported by Manning was true for both men and women, self-reported and spousal ring-wearing behavior, and one's own and spousal 2D:4D or absolute finger lengths. Supplemental findings included sex differences and age effects in the prevalence of wearing wedding rings (more frequent in women and the younger than in men and the older) and a sex bias when ring-wearing behavior within couples was discordant (men more frequently did not wear their wedding ring when their wives did than vice versa). Discussed are implications of the current findings and directions for future research into possible associations of 2D:4D with other aspects of body ornamentation.