真实和虚拟金钱奖赏影响风险决策行为*

在风险情境下人类如何决策是长久以来心理学和经济学研究中一个极具挑战性的核心问题。众多研究采用真实或虚拟金钱作为奖赏强化物来探索风险决策行为的过程和机制,但对金钱奖赏真实性如何影响决策了解很少。仿真气球冒险任务(BART：Balloon Analogue Risk Task)可以在实验室条件下有效评估个体在真实社会中的风险行为。本研究采用 BART任务,通过两个实验探讨和比较了真实与虚拟金钱奖赏对风险决策行为的影响。实验一的结果发现,与虚拟金钱奖赏相比,真实金钱奖赏情境下的风险决策更容易受上一次决策结果的影响,上一次决策失败会导致被试的风险偏好水平显著降低(平均吹气球的次数显著减少),同时决策失败(气球吹爆)次数也显著减少,提示真实金钱奖赏下有更强的反馈学习效应。实验二重复了实验一的结果,并进一步发现,虚拟金钱奖赏的幅度对被试的风险决策行为没有影响,而真实金钱奖赏的幅度能显著改变被试的风险决策行为,较大幅度的真实金钱奖赏可以显著降低被试的风险偏好水平,但这种奖赏幅度对风险偏好的调控效应只对感觉寻求水平低的被试有效,感觉寻求水平高的被试不受影响。这些发现表明真实与虚拟金钱奖赏对风险决策行为有不同的影响。我们的结果可以用风险决策的后悔理论或齐当别模型来解释。     

Predicting Well-Being From Personality in Adolescents and Older Adults

The relationship between personality and well-being is dynamic and therefore should be examined within aging perspective. In study presented here we compared the prediction of well-being from personality in two samples?C223 adolescents attending high-school (16?C19?years; M?=?16.94, SD?=?0.51) and 134 older adults (54?C90?years; M?=?77.20, SD?=?7.39) living in retirement home or at home. Different aspects of well-being were included in the study. Subjective well-being was measured with Index of Well-Being, but also self-esteem and loneliness were included as measures of psychological well-being. Personality (measured with FFPI; Hendriks et al. in Pers Individ Dif 27:307?C325, 1999) significantly predicted indicators of well-being (Self-Esteem, Loneliness and Index of Well-Being) in both samples, with emotional stability and extraversion as most pronounced predictors. Personality explained more variance of well-being in adolescents than in older adults, and more variance in eudaimonic than hedonic aspects of well-being.     

The Premonitory Urge to Tic: Measurement,Characteristics, and Correlates in Older Adolescents and Adults

In addition to motor and/or vocal tics, many individuals with Tourette syndrome (TS) or chronic tic disorder (CTD) report frequent, uncomfortable sensory phenomena that immediately precede the tics. To date, examination of these premonitory sensations or urges has been limited by inconsistent assessment tools. In this paper, we examine the psychometric properties of a nine-item self-report measure, the Premonitory Urge to Tic Scale (PUTS) and examine the characteristics and correlates of the premonitory urge to tic in a clinical sample of 122 older adolescents and adults with TS or CTD. The PUTS demonstrated adequate internal consistency, temporal stability, and concurrent validity. Premonitory urges were endorsed by the majority of individuals. Most individuals reported some relief from the urges after completing a tic and being able to stop their tics even if only temporarily. Degree of premonitory urges was not significantly correlated with age, and we did not observe any gender differences. Degree of premonitory urges was significantly correlated with estimated IQ and tic severity, but not severity of comorbid obsessive–compulsive disorder or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Also, it was not related to concomitant medication status. These findings represent another step forward in our understanding of the premonitory sensations associated with TS and CTD.     

概率贴现和时间贴现在人脑中的分离

本研究运用ERP技术来检验概率贴现和时间贴现是否反映了相同的神经机制过程。在本研究中,我们在一个刺激中同时操纵概率贴现（风险vs.安全）和时间贴现（1个月后vs.今天）水平。通过对两个过程上的ERN以及全时间段的ERP分析来确定它们是否反映了相同的认知过程。结果发现,这两者在ERN上存在差异,同时这两个效应在ERP的时程和出现的电极点上都存在差异。这些差异表明这两者可能包含着不同的神经机制过程。     

Working Memory for Item and Temporal Information in Younger and Older Adults

ABSTRACT

Two experiments examined age differences in mechanisms hypothesized to affect activation of item and temporal information in working memory. Activation levels were inferred from the ability to reject n-back lures matching items in different temporal positions. Information with the least decay had a performance advantage over less recent information, but was susceptible to the same temporal context errors found in all adjacent-to-target lure positions. Lures most distant from the current item showed a performance rebound. The pattern of increased magnitudes of age effects at adjacent-to-target positions indicated a reduction in older adults' working memory for temporal context information above and beyond item memory declines. Results overall support the emphasis on context information as a critical factor in working memory and cognitive aging.     

时间贴现的分段性

以延迟和相对延迟时间贴现的实验范式, 用选择法、匹配法确定价值主观相等点, 探讨时间贴现的分段性。三个实验和一个问卷调查发现, 时间贴现具有分段性。被试的时间贴现有三次显著变化, 表现为三个时段时间贴现心理状态的不同: 从现在到未来2周内规避损失、偏好风险、愿意短期等待, 从未来2周起直到未来10年采取非补偿性策略、需求与风险并重、愿意长期等待, 和从未来10年起直到未来50年规避风险、聊胜于无、不愿意等待。     

Prospective Predictors of Suicidal Ideation during Depressive Episodes among Older Adolescents and Young Adults

Suicide is a leading cause of death among older adolescents and young adults; however, few studies have prospectively examined risk for suicidal ideation. The present study in older adolescents and young adults investigated whether two personality traits previously implicated in risk for suicidal ideation, neuroticism and extraversion, as well as certain aspects of interpersonal functioning, prospectively predicted endorsement of suicidal ideation during depressive episodes. Participants (n=117) are a subset of the Northwestern-UCLA Youth Emotion Project sample, which started with a group of high school juniors oversampled for high neuroticism. Baseline interpersonal functioning was measured using the Life Stress Interview. Baseline personality trait composite scores were created from multiple inventories. Depressive disorders and suicidal ideation were assessed at the baseline and three annual follow-up interviews using the SCID. Cox regression was employed to predict suicidal ideation during depressive episodes diagnosed at any follow-up interview. Results showed that baseline extraversion inversely predicts suicidal ideation in males only, and that baseline interpersonal problems in one's social circle, regardless of gender, predict suicidal ideation during depressive episodes.     

时间贴现的性质与脑机制

时间贴现是指个人对事件的价值量估计随着时间的流逝而下降的心理现象,它是行为选择理论的一个重要组成部分。着重介绍了时间贴现的数学模型（指数模型、双曲线模型族、非双曲线模型）、时间贴现现象和概率贴现现象的联系、延迟兑现与提前兑现时间贴现不对称现象及其理论解释,还讨论了时间贴现现象的神经机制研究。提出了时间贴现未来研究的几个主要问题     

The Importance of Social Versus Temporal Comparison Appraisals Among Older Adults1

It has been suggested that social comparisons become less frequent and less important to one's self-evaluation, and temporal comparisons become more frequent and more important to self-evaluation in later life. In this study, the influence of social and temporal comparison appraisals on global self-ratings in 3 domains (health, income, and memory) was assessed among individuals ranging in age from 53 to 90 years. Although social comparison appraisals were significantly related to self-ratings in all 3 domains, temporal comparison appraisals were only related to self-rated memory. There was also no evidence that the effect of social or temporal comparison appraisals on self-evaluations differed with age among our sample of middle-aged and older adults. Social comparison appraisal appears to be a viable mechanism by which esteem can be preserved in old age, despite increasing loss and impairment.     

Reliability of a Measure of Temporal Discounting

The Psychological Record - Participants (N = 17) chose between smaller, immediate and larger, delayed hypothetical money amounts in two laboratory sessions separated by 1 week. The choice procedure...     

Identity and Location Priming Effects and their Temporal Stability in Young and Older Adults

ABSTRACT

Unlike previous studies, the present experiment was designed to directly compare negative (NP) and positive priming (PP) in 37 young (mean age: 21.5 years) and 37 older adults (mean age: 69.4 years) by means of two independent identity- and location-based priming tasks. While identity PP was shown to be reduced in older adults, no age-related differences were found for location PP. This pattern of results supports the notion that mechanisms involved in identity- and location-based PP are largely independent of each other. Both age groups exhibited reliable identity and location NP although location NP was decreased in older adults. Extremely low temporal test–retest coefficients indicated that mechanisms underlying identity and location NP represent situational states rather than stable traits. This lack of temporal stability may also account for highly ambiguous results obtained in previous studies.     

Spiritual Wellness and Depression: Testing a Theoretical Model With Older Adolescents and Midlife Adults

Overall spiritual wellness, as well as 4 individual components of spiritual wellness, has been theoretically and empirically linked with depression. Prior to this investigation, no study has examined the relationship between spiritual wellness and depression by using a 4‐component measurement model of spiritual wellness. In this study of older adolescents and midlife adults, negative correlations between 4 components of spiritual wellness and depression were found for both groups. Results of multiple regression analyses showed that for both older adolescents and midlife adults, the only significant contributing factor of spiritual wellness to depression was meaning and purpose in life.     

Definitions of Idioms in Preadolescents, Adolescents, and Adults

The purpose of this study was to expand the current literature on word definitions by focusing on definitions of idioms provided by several age groups. Preadolescents, young adolescents, older adolescents, and adults wrote definitions for 10 frequently used idioms and also rated their familiarity with the idiomatic expressions. Participants’ definitions were scored based on the degree to which their definitions reflected use of critical elements (determined by a standard dictionary of idioms), use of examples or related/associated concepts, and errors. Significant age differences were found in both idiom familiarity and idiom definition tasks: both idiom familiarity and definitional skill improved with age. In addition, we found a positive correlation between idiom familiarity and idiom definition. Results are discussed with respect to age-related changes in definitional response types and understanding of figurative language.     

The Relative Rewards and Costs of Childlessness for Older Women

Currently married or widowed women aged 60–75 (N = 719), either childless or with one or more children, were interviewed about advantages and disadvantages of childlessness and about other family-related and social areas. Results indicate that childless older women did not conform to a stereotype of unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Respondents with and without children valued the rewards of their particular lifestyle and perceived costs in the other.     

Psychological Separation of Older Adolescents and Young Adults From Their Parents: An Investigation of Gender Differences

Gender differences were examined in 182 freshman college students who had completed a packet of questionnaires and inventories to address the impact of separation from their parents and to test the relevance of self-in-relation theory. Instruments administered included the Social Support Questionnaire-Short Form (SSQ-6); the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales-Revised (FACES-R); and the Separation-Individuation Inventory. A multivariate analysis of variance performed on each instrument administered revealed significant differences between men and women on the SSQ-6 and the FACES-R. Differences indicated that, as expected, women reported establishing more of all kinds of support, were better satisfied with its quality, and viewed their families as more cohesive than did men. Unexpectedly, men and women viewed their families as equally socially desirable, and both men and women reported few disturbances in the separation-individuation process.     

Parental Representations,Self-View,and Interpersonal Functioning of Older Adolescents

This study examines the relationship between parental object representations, self-representations, and interpersonal relations in a nonclinical sample of older adolescents. It was hypothesized that individuals with parental representations that are conceptually low, hostile, and rejecting would be significantly related to a negative view of self and poor interpersonal relations. The results suggest that parental benevolence, ambitiousness, and conceptual level are significantly related to interpersonal functioning. Parental representations that are qualitatively poor were found to be associated with a negative view of self. However, a high conceptual level of mother was noted to be significantly related to a negative self-representation. The findings generally confirm the nature of the relationship between object representations and self, but also suggest that the structural component of parental representations may reflect a cognitive component of the self rather than an affective one. The difficulties of controlling for depression and method variance issues are also discussed.     

Spiritual Autobiography and Older Adults

Spiritual autobiography groups constitute a form of ministry that can potentially enrich the lives of older adults, their families, and their congregations. Such groups, when competently led, provide participants with an environment in which they can make meaning out of their lives, grieve their losses, and give and receive support. The actions and interactions involved in composing, telling, and hearing life stories are salutary exercises that can increase participants’ experiences of clarity, coherence, and connection to God and to each other. The spiritual wisdom that emerges from such life stories, when shared within congregations, can enhance intergenerational relationships and lead to spiritual growth for members of diverse ages.     

Executive Functioning, Temporal Discounting, and Sense of Time in Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

Clinic-referred teens (ages 12–19) with ADHD and ODD (N = 101) were compared to community control (CC) teens, equated for age and sex, (N = 39) on a variety of psychological tasks assessing executive functioning (EF), temporal reward discounting, and time estimation and reproduction. A factor analysis reduced the EF measures to three dimensions, representing CPT Inattention, Working Memory, and CPT Inhibition. Results indicated that the ADHD group had significantly more CPT Inattention than the CC group. No differences were found for Working Memory or CPT Inhibition. The ADHD group displayed significantly greater temporal discounting of delayed hypothetical monetary rewards relative to immediate ones and manifested more impaired time reproduction, but not time estimation, than did the CC group. Main effects for level of IQ were found only on the Working Memory factor and largely did not interact with the group factor otherwise. The group differences in CPT Inattention, temporal discounting, and time reproduction were not a function of level of comorbid oppositional defiant disorder, delinquency, or anxiety–depression. Results are reasonably consistent with past research on EF and sense of time in children with ADHD and extend these findings to the adolescent age group. Problems with working memory and CPT inhibition found in prior studies of children with ADHD, however, were not evident here, perhaps owing to age-related improvements or insufficient task difficulty.     

Sexuality,Intimacy, and Group Psychotherapy with Older Adults

Sexuality is an intrinsic part of life but late-life sexuality is a neglected topic in the literature. With an aging society, groups will contain more older adults. It is important for group therapists to reflect on their attitudes when working with older group members. This paper examines how both the attitudes of society in general and of therapists regarding late-life sexuality and intimacy may contribute to the neglect of these subjects being discussed in group therapy.