Spiritual Dimensions in Counselling: Editor's Introduction

Contributors to the symposium experienced difficulty in finding appropriate language to express their understanding of spirituality and the essential nature of their work with clients. Nevertheless, a fascinating world emerges from which it is clear that many counsellors are now fulfilling the role of spiritual companion. The implications of this for therapists in general are examined, as well as what it means for clients to conceive of themselves as 'spirit'. The question of whether or not counsellors are taking over from the clergy as spiritual guides is explored.     

Integrating Spiritual Experiences in Counseling

Although the spiritual dimension is an integral part of psychotherapy, most mental health professionals lack the necessary training for working with spiritual experiences therapeutically. The experiential focusing method developed by Eugene Gendlin (eg., 1969, 1981) offers a key tool for counselors to help clients integrate their spiritual experiences in counseling. In this article, the author offers a definition of the spiritual experience, outlines the focusing method, presents examples of its application, and discusses the implications of using focusing to help clients integrate spirituality in counseling.     

Taxonomy of Spiritual Experiences

Spiritual experiences are often associated with health crises, with little information about the structure of the experience. A taxonomic analysis was conducted on data from a group of healers, unveiling a structural model of spiritual experience comprised of three domains: circumstances, manifestation and interpretation. Circumstances included the aspects of setting, situation, and timing. Manifestation incorporated the modes of awareness and the phenomena of the experience. Components of interpretation included personal meaning and congruence with social norms. The examples reflected the orientation of the study population. Further research could examine the applicability of the taxonomy to other religious or spiritual orientations and may assist in clinical assessment of spiritual experiences.Diane Wind Wardell, Ph.D., R.N.C., H.N.C., C.H.T.P./I., and Joan C. Engebretson, Dr.P.H., R.N., H.N.C., are Associate Professors in the School of Nursing at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. Correspondence to Diane Wind Wardell, Diane.Wardell@uth.tmc.edu.     

Near-Death Experiences and Spiritual Well-Being

People who have near-death experiences often report a subsequently increased sense of spirituality and a connection with their inner self and the world around them. In this study, we examined spiritual well-being, using Paloutzian and Ellison’s Spiritual Well-Being Scale, among 224 persons who had come close to death. Participants who reported having near-death experiences reported greater spiritual well-being than those who did not, and depth of spiritual well-being was positively correlated with depth of near-death experience. We discussed the implications of these findings in light of other reported aftereffects of near-death experiences and of spiritual well-being among other populations.     

Formal and Informal Counselling Help: Students' Experiences

The experiences reported by students who sought help from formal counselling sources were compared with those reported by students who sought assistance from informal helpers. The two groups of students had similar types of problems, but the counselling clients reported (a) higher levels of problem seriousness, (b) lower levels of comfort with the interaction, and (c) higher levels of satisfaction with the help offered.     

Spiritual Experiences of Gay Men and Lesbians

The spiritual and religious lives of gay men and lesbians are often misunderstood by counselors who have too little information about this rich and diverse population. This article offers an explication of the challenges facing gay persons, a model that will be useful in counseling sessions, and a list of resources for further information.     

Spiritual Experiences of Muslim Critical Care Nurses

The purpose of this study was to determine the experiences and perceptions of intensive care nurses (ICNs) about spirituality and spiritual care, as well as the effective factors, and increase the sensitivity to the subject. In this study, we examined spiritual experiences, using McSherry et al. (Int J Nurs Stud 39:723–734, 2002) Spirituality and spiritual care rating scale (SSCRS), among 145 ICNs. 44.8% of the nurses stated that they received spiritual care training and 64.1% provided spiritual care to their patients. ICNs had a total score average of 57.62 ± 12.00 in SSCRS. As a consequence, it was determined that intensive care nurses participating in the study had insufficient knowledge about spirituality and spiritual care, but only the nurses with sufficient knowledge provided the spiritual care to their patients.     

Counselling in dyslexia

This paper is basically a report of personal experiences. In Part one I shall describe and comment on some of the things which are said and done when parents bring their children to me to be assessed for dyslexia; in Part Two I shall consider what conclusions, if any, can be drawn which are relevant to counselling in general.     

Transformation in Counselling

The view is put forward that counselling appears to be undergoing a transformation which renders the old distinction between counselling and therapy no longer meaningful or practical. This transformation reflects the psychic backdrop of our times; it has come about because the needs of people seeking help, as well as the needs of those counselling, have altered and developed. Increasingly, clients are acknowledging the need for radical change which involves exploration of all levels of their being. This transformative work, a moving across inner barriers and coming into wholeness, necessarily involves active awareness of spirit. Thus it is no longer possible to be a client-centred counsellor without being willing to address the spiritual dimension ofhuman-beingness.     

Pastoral Counselling

The beginnings of the modern pastoral-care and counselling movement in the 1960s are reviewed, in particular, the attempt to integrate theology with the behavioural sciences, and the theories born of that integration with the practice of pastors and religious leaders. The developments of the last ten years are explored and the tensions of the movement analysed. Pastoral counsellors' contribution to counselling in general in the United Kingdom, and to pastoral ministry both here and overseas, is assessed.     

Counselling in Medical Settings

The slow development of counselling as an alternative to traditional treatment within the medical model is described. Counselling in medical settings has its roots in the work of the Marriage Guidance Council and the influence of Balint towards psychotherapy. 10-30% of all consultations in general practitioners' surgeries are related to emotional distress, yet the adoption and rise of counselling is more patchy than widespread. The factors which have hindered its expansion in the past are discussed, and it is concluded that its development in the future will depend largely upon pronounced changes in public health policy.     

Counselling Psychology in Japan

Les caractéristiques du conseil psychologique au Japon ont été passées en revue selon les points-de-vues suivants: (1) l'histoire du conseil psychologique. (2) le conseil psychologique aujourd'hui, (3) le conseil psychologique comparé au psychologue clinicien. (4) l'avenir du conseil psychologique, et (5) le conseil psychologique appliqué au, conseil d'etudiants. Au Japon, le conseil psychologique est encore jeune, si Ton en juge par sa familiarité chez les professionnels comme chez les non-professionnels, probablement autant à cause des caractéristiques nationales des japonais que du système scolaire. Il semble important que le conseil psychologique sauvegarde son identitéà I'intérieur des disciplines de la psychologie appliquée et/ou de la psychologie de la santé.
The outlook for counselling psychology in Japan has been reviewed from the following viewpoints: (1) the history of counselling psychology, (2) counselling psychology today, (3) counselling psychology compared with clinical psychology, (4) the future of counselling psychology, and (5) counselling psychology applied to student counselling. It is found that counselling psychology in Japan is still young in terms of its familiarity to both professionals and non-professionals, probably because of the national characteristics of the Japanese as well as the certification system. It seems to be important for counselling psychology to secure its identity within the discipline of applied psychology and/or health psychology.     

Youth Counselling

Youth counselling and advisory work takes various forms in various settings. Against a background of key trends affecting the lives of young people, the range of such services is outlined. Particular attention is paid to generalist youth counselling and advisory agencies, to guidance and support in the Youth Training Scheme, and to relevant work in the Youth Service. The importance of promoting autonomy, and at the same time responding to wider social and political influences on individuals and services, is emphasised.     

Counselling studies

It is proposed that a discipline of 'counselling studies' be considered as an extension of counselling and a contribution to social guidance. Likely features of such a discipline are suggested, including a focus on the individual person, interdisciplinarity, humanistic values, applied and theoretical dialectic, critical attitude and dynamic nature. Questions of suitable name, location and goals are considered. Some indication of possible contents is given in the article.     

Octogenarian Reports of Lifetime Spiritual Experiences: Types of Experience and Early Life Predictors

This study assessed lifetime histories of discrete spiritual experiences recalled by 144 octogenarian men studied since adolescence and 80 spouses. Women were more likely to report discrete spiritual experiences, as were those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and those judged more open to experience as young adults. Factor analysis revealed four types of experiences related to beauty/nature, negative life events, protection by a sacred other, and traditional religious settings. Men from better childhood environments more commonly reported spiritual experiences concerning negative life events. Those with serious childhood illnesses were less likely to report experiences of feeling protected by a sacred other.     

Psychometric Testing of the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale Among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study

This study provided the first examination of the psychometric properties of the 6-item Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) in a large African American sample, the Jackson Heart Study (JHS). The JHS included measures of spiritual (DSES) and religious practices. Internal reliability, dimensionality, fit indices, and correlation were assessed. DSES scores reflected frequent daily spiritual experiences (12.84 ± 4.72) and reliability scores were high (α = 0.85; 95% CI 0.84–0.86). The DSES loaded on a single factor, with significant goodness-of-fit scores (RMSEA = 0.094, P < 0.01). Moderate significant correlations were noted among DSES items. Our findings confirm that the 6-item DSES had excellent psychometric properties in this sample.     

The Role of Spiritual Experiences and Activities in the Relationship Between Chronic Illness and Psychological Well-Being

Our research explores the correlates of spiritual experiences over a 2-year period in a sample of older adults (N = 164; mean age 81.9 years) living in a continuing care retirement community. Utilizing responses to the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale, scores were analyzed for changes over time and for their hypothesized moderating effect in the relationship between chronic illness impact and markers of psychological well-being (as measured by the Geriatric Depression and Life Satisfaction scales). Repeated measures ANOVA indicated a significant decline (P < .01) in the reported spiritual experiences over a 2-year period of time, and t tests showed a significant difference by gender (P < .01) in years 1 and 2, with women reporting higher levels of spiritual experiences than men. Analyses found low spirituality scores associated with low life satisfaction in all years (baseline: r = ?.288, P < .01; year 1: r = ?.209, P < .05; year 2: r = ?.330, P < .001). Only weak associations were detected between low spirituality and the presence of depressive symptoms at baseline (r = .186, P < .05) and year 2 (r = .254, P < .01). Moderation effects of spirituality on the relationship between chronic illness impact and markers of psychological well-being were explored in all years, with a statistically significant effect found only for the presence of depressive symptoms in year 2. Higher impact of chronic illnesses is associated with more depressive symptoms under conditions of low spirituality. Future research may center upon longer-duration evaluation of reliance upon spiritual practices and their impact in care management models.     

Buddhism and Counselling

The relevance of the principles and practices of Buddhism to the field of counselling is discussed. Buddhist techniques have already been used by the helping professions in many settings (e.g. Japan, Sri Lanka). The extension of their use to a wider range of settings, and to a wider group of clients, is both feasible and desirable. In addition to the obvious relevance of Buddhist techniques to clients who have a Buddhist background, it is argued that they have a wider applicability. As Buddhism espouses the notion of a productive and healthy lay life, it offers ways not only of dealing with problems and difficulties, but also of improving psychological well-being in general. Examples are cited of relevant Buddhist techniques and their application. It is argued that, once systematically evaluated, many of these could profitably be incorporated into the repertoire of techniques used in present-day counselling and therapy.