A comparison of male and female reactions to career advancement opportunities

Male and female managerial, professional, and technical employees participated in a study to test for the existence of sex differences in (1) attitudes toward the risks and sacrifices associated with career advancement and (2) salary increments required to accept a promotion opportunity. Results showed no differences in male and female attitudes toward career advancement. In addition, men and women appeared to hold highly similar ideas about the size of salary increments necessary to induce acceptance of various hypothetical promotion opportunites. Findings are discussed in relation to common stereotypes regarding the career mobility of women.     

A comparison of the self-images of female and male assistant professors

The present study investigated role perceptions of male and female assistant professors at Cornell University in 1970 and the University of Rochester in 1975; 28 female assistant professors in the College of Arts and Sciences of the two institutions were matched with male assistant professors from the same school. Subjects were administered a 22-item questionnaire tapping job roles, job duties, departmental issues, university issues, and personal roles. Chi-square analyses and t tests found few differences between males and females on specific job duties (i.e., number of publications, degrees, desire to teach), some differences in job roles, more differences in perceptions of departmental and university issues, and many differences in subjects' personal lives. These similarities and differences are discussed in terms of role conflict for women, and implications for university policy making are presented.A version of this paper was presented at the annual convention of the Rocky Mountain Psychological Association, Phoenix, May 1976. The authors would like to thank Otto Wahl for his helpful comments.     

Perfectionism,social physique anxiety and disordered eating: a comparison of male and female elite athletes

Objective: To examine the relationship between Positive and Negative Perfectionism and Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) and the extent to which these two variables predict disturbed eating attitudes in male and female elite athletes.Design: Cross-sectional survey.Method: Athletes (n=316) completed measures of Positive and Negative Perfectionism, SPA, disordered eating and social desirability. Zero- and first-order (partial) correlations were examined to determine the relationship between Positive and Negative Perfectionism and SPA. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine how two individual difference variables, perfectionism and SPA, relate and contribute to disordered eating.Results: For both male and female athletes, Negative Perfectionism was significantly related to SPA. For males, Positive Perfectionism made a small, yet significant, contribution (i.e. 6%) in predicting disturbed eating attitudes. For females, Negative Perfectionism and SPA uniquely and in combination significantly contributed 41% of the variance in the prediction of disturbed eating attitudes.Discussion: These findings suggest that Negative Perfectionism is strongly linked with SPA and that, in females, SPA is an additional psychosocial variable to consider in the relationship between Negative Perfectionism and disordered eating.     

Maternal behaviors and cognitions during discipline episodes: a comparison of power bouts and single acts of noncompliance

Maternal behaviors and cognitions within power bouts and single acts of noncompliance were compared by using 2 methodologies. Ninety mothers completed daily telephone interviews concerning their children's misbehavior for 12 days. Half of the mothers also completed a computerized simulation of 3 different power bouts, and the other half of the mothers completed a similar simulation of 3 sets of single noncompliance episodes. Mothers made behavioral intention choices and rated their perceptions of the child's behavior in the computer simulation. Results indicate that power bouts formed a special class of discipline episodes distinct from single noncompliance. Mothers reported more negative perceptions of the child as well as more aversion during extended power bouts. Discussion focuses on possible different types of power bouts and the need for theories of socialization to include the transactive nature of discipline episodes.     

The relationship of assertiveness to college students' safer sex behaviors.

Educational programs designed to curtail the present sexually transmitted disease (STD) epidemic emphasize the role of assertiveness in reducing personal risk. This study investigated the relationship between assertiveness tendencies and safer sex behaviors in heterosexual college students. It was predicted that assertiveness would vary positively, and nonassertiveness negatively, with three types of precautionary behaviors: caution about engaging in sexual intimacy, inquiry about a potential partner's STD risk history, and frequency of condom use. A convenience sample of 253 undergraduates (159 females and 94 males) anonymously completed a sexual behavior/demographic questionnaire and the Intimate Relationships Questionnaire (IRQ), designed for this study and involving assertive, nonassertive, and aggressive responses to scenarios relevant to safer sex. The findings confirmed the hypothesized relationships between IRQ assertiveness tendencies and safer sex practices. Gender differences were discovered on the IRQ and in the health-protective behaviors of using caution and inquiring about a prospective partner's STD risk history. Implications for STD prevention strategies are discussed.     

Anorexic eating attitudes and behaviors of male and female college students

This study examined gender differences in eating attitudes and behaviors in a sample of 471 undergraduate college students. The prevalence of symptomatology indicative of anorexia was determined using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26). In addition, the family climate, parent-child dynamics, and self-concept of students with and without maladaptive eating attitudes and behaviors were compared, and the relationship between eating attitudes/behaviors and current psychological distress was examined. Anorexic symptomatology was found for 20% of the females and 10% of the males. In general, students without symptomatic attitudes and behaviors had a more positive self-concept and reported less psychological distress than did those with eating disturbances. The findings suggest that eating problems may be more prevalent among males than previously estimated.     

The role of peer groups in male and female adolescents' task values and physical activity

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine the role of peer groups and sex in adolescents' task values and physical activity. The participants were 330 Finnish Grade 6 students (173 girls, 157 boys), who responded to questionnaires that assessed physical education task values during the spring semester (Time 1). Students' physical activity was assessed one year later (Time 2). The results indicated that adolescent peer groups were moderately homogeneous in terms of task values toward physical education and physical activity. Girls' peer groups were more homogeneous than those of boys in regards to utility and attainment values. Furthermore, the results for both girls and boys showed that particularly intrinsic task value typical for the peer group predicted group members' physical activity. The findings highlight the important role of peer group membership as a determinant of future physical activity.     

Chronic social comparison elicits depression- and anxiety-like behaviors and alterations in brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in male rats

Animal Cognition - Social comparison is a fundamental human characteristic; however, long-term social comparison may induce psychological stress and can lead to depression and anxiety. Recent...     

A comparison of the family environments of black male and female adolescent alcohol users.

The purpose of this study was to examine black American adolescents' use of alcohol and their perceptions of their family environments. Seventy-one participants between the ages of 12 and 20 from a large mid-Atlantic medical facility, who reported using alcohol, were asked to complete the Family Environment Scale (FES). Users were described as those who drank at least once a week and used medium amounts per occasion. Females were hypothesized to have higher scores on the FES than males (higher scores on the FES suggest a more favorable perception of family functioning). A t test was conducted to compare group means on each subscale of the FES. Analyses of the data indicated that females differed significantly from males (p less than .05) on four of the ten subscales.     

Linking female and male subtypes to situations: A range-of-situation-fit effect

The perceived link of female and male subtypes to particular classes of common situations was examined. Building on gender-role theory [A. H. Eagly (1987) Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social Role Interpretation, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum] it was hypothesized that female and male subtypes would differ in the range of situations which they are seen to match. In two studies using different sets of gender subtypes and situations, Ss (total N = 124, 100% white) assigned female and male subtypes to situations in which they would be comfortable. Results consistently showed that female subtypes, as compared to male subtypes, were allowed a broader range of situations in which they would interact comfortably. Similarly, situations were seen to match a broader range of female than of male subtypes. A two-mode clustering analysis of the assignment frequencies served to elucidate the perceived interconnections between gender subtypes and situations. The evidence from both studies suggests that gender stereotypes include information about distinctive patterns of subtype × situation relations. Implications for gender stereotype research are discussed.This research was supported in part by a fellowship (Az. Ec 92/1-1) and a grant (Az. Ec 92/1–2) from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.I would like to thank two anonymous reviewers for many helpful comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this article.     

Behavioral measures of assertiveness: A comparison of audio and audiovisual coding of structured interactions

This study assessed the relative utility of audio and audiovisually recorded versions of structured interactions from the Behavioral Assertiveness Test-Revised. The subjects were 28 adult male psychiatric patients who participated in an assertion training program. The systems were evaluated on a number of dimensions including reliability, comparability, sensitivity to change, concurrent and discriminant validity, and cost. The two systems were found to be approximately equally reliable, to produce comparable results on measures that were assessed by both systems, and to be approximately equally sensitive to change. The main advantage of the audiovisual system was the inclusion of a measure of eye contact — which proved to be one of the most valid component behaviors assessed. Potential users need to weigh the additional information obtained from this measure against the substantially greater cost of the audiovisual system. It was concluded that both systems could be simplified, and limitations of the study were noted.     

Chronic stress and coping styles: a comparison of male and female undergraduates

Male and female coping behaviors were compared in order to test the theory that men use instrumental coping strategies more frequently than women, who are thought to use emotion-focused coping solutions. We interviewed 51 female and 39 male first-year undergraduates by telephone three times a week for 8 weeks, using an inventory developed for 28 chronic stressors. Analyses of variance were used to test gender differences in frequency of daily stressors, concomitant perceptions of stress, and utilization of problem-solving behaviors. The majority of analyses showed no gender differences. The implications of these findings are discussed in light of cultural expectations.     

A comparison of moral reasoning and moral character in male and female incarcerated felons

Gender differences among incarcerated adult felons along dimensions of moral reasoning and moral character were examined. Previous work was extended by comparing adult male and female felons, and by exploring the relationship between moral reasoning and moral character. Subjects completed the Socio-moral Reflection Questionnaire, which measures moral reasoning. Moral character was assessed by a socialization scale, two empathy measures, and two autonomy questionnaires. Discriminant function analysis revealed that men were higher than women on moral reasoning, lower on socialization, higher on role-taking empathy, lower on emotional empathy, and more internal in locus of control. Moral reasoning was correlated with role-taking empathy and locus of control. Implications for theories of gender differences in moral reasoning and criminality were discussed.     

Further investigation of the relationship between expressed social fear and assertiveness

Recently, Morgan (1974) investigated the relationship between expressed social fear and assertiveness. As hypothesized, Morgan found a statistically significant relationship between social fear as measured by ten items from the Fear Survey Schedule-III (FSS-III) (Wolpe and Lang, 1964) and assertiveness as measured by the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS) (Rathus, 1973b). The observed relationship, however, was of little predictive importance, as noted by Morgan, in that the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients accounted at most for less than 6 per cent of the variance. This finding raises questions concerning traditional views of assertiveness (e.g. Salter, 1949; Wolpe 1958; Wolpe and Lazarus, 1966) which have hypothesized that an individual is “inhibited from the performance of ‘normal’ behavior because of neurotic fear” (Wolpe, 1973, p. 81).The literature concerning the relationship between assertive behavior and social fear is meager. Goldstein, Serber and Piaget (1970) have reported two illustrative case studies in which anger expressiveness induced through assertiveness training resulted in the clinically assessed reduction of social fear. Rathus (1973a) has reported the results of an empirical investigation of assertiveness training which might, as suggested by Morgan, lend indirect support for the hypothesized relationship. Using undergraduate female subjects, Rathus found that an assertive training group not only scored higher on a measure of assertiveness—the RAS—at post-testing than either the placebo or the no-treatment groups, but the training group also reported a nonsignificant tendency of being less fearful than the other two groups of social criticism and social incompetence, as measured by the Temple Fear Survey (Braun and Reynolds, 1969).Weinman et at. (1972) administered the Fear Survey Schedule-II (FSS-II) (Geer, 1965) to a sample of hospitalized patients diagnosed as schizophrenic. The FSS-II consists of 51 fear items, 13 or 25.9% of which can be considered to be interpersonal in nature. All three treatment conditions—socioenvironmental, desensitization, and relaxation therapy—resulted in a significant decrease in reported fear (p < 0.001).Bates and Zimmennan (1971) during the initial stages of constructing their Constriction Scale (CS) administered the CS and the FSS-II. The term ‘constriction’, incidentally, was used by the authors to “denote non-assertion” (p. 100). Unlike the RAS, a high score on the CS denotes low assertiveness. Correlation coefficients for the CS with the FSS-II of 0.32 for the male sample and 0.13 for the female sample were obtained. The male coefficient was significant at the 0.05 level. These findings may be confounded, as in the case of Weinman et al. (1972), by the inclusion of fear items on the FSS-II unrelated to interpersonal behavior, such as Thunderstorms' and ‘Hypodermic needles’.Morgan (1974) attacked the problem more directly. Drawing on several factor analytic studies of various fear schedules, Morgan constructed a 10-item Social Fear Scale (SFS) from the FSS-III. Using a large, undergraduate sample (n = 261), Morgan reported correlation coefficients for the RAS with SFS of-0.17 for the male sample, ?0.20 for the female sample, and ?0.24 for the sample as a whole.Whereas the magnitude of the correlation coefficients reported by Bates and Zimmerman (1971) may have been attenuated by the inclusion of items unrelated to social situations, Morgan's results may have been attenuated by the tapping of only limited aspects of social fear. Morgan reported that in the construction of the SFS, “The items selected were those which most consistently loaded heavily on ‘social fear’ factors and did not load heavily on other factors” (1974, p. 255). Inspection of FSS-III items not included in the SFS, however, indicated that several had been excluded which may be conceptualized as relevant to assertive behavior, such as ‘Speaking in public’, ‘Feeling angry’, and ‘People in authority’.It is suggested that an expanded SFS which would include all items from the FSS-III conceptually compatible with assertiveness might result in findings of greater predictive value. One purpose of this study is the replication of the Morgan (1974) study. In addition, however, a more comprehensive SFS and another measure of assertiveness will be used to further investigate the relationship between assertiveness and social fear. It is hypothesized that the expanded SFS will correlate inversely with both self-report measures of assertiveness to a degree significantly greater than the correlations of the two measures with the original SFS.     

基于QQ空间的社交网站使用对青少年抑郁的影响:上行社会比较和自尊的序列中介作用

为探讨社交网站(QQ空间)使用对青少年抑郁的影响及其作用机制,在社会比较和抑郁易感性模型的视角下,采用社交网站使用强度问卷、上行社会比较问卷、自尊量表和抑郁量表,对964名中学生进行调查。结果表明:(1)在控制了性别、年龄以及社交网站使用年限后,社交网站使用对抑郁和社交网站中的上行社会比较都有显著的正向预测作用;(2)社交网站使用能通过社交网站中的上行社会比较和自尊的中介作用对抑郁产生影响,且该中介作用包含了两条路径——上行社会比较的单独中介作用以及上行社会比较-自尊的链式中介作用。本研究揭示了社交网站使用与抑郁的关系及其作用机制,深化了社交网站使用对个体影响的研究。