Causal internalization of academic performance as a function of self-esteem and performance satisfaction

In the present investigation, we integrated self-theories (specifically, theories of cognitive consistency and self-esteem) with attribution theory. Our intent was to clarify the effects of different levels of self-esteem and performance satisfaction on causal internalization of academic performance. Subjects were 162 university students who attributed causality for their individual performances on a midterm examination. Attributions to four internal and four external causal sources were analyzed with a 2 × 2 (Self-Concept × Performance Satisfaction) MANOVA and with follow-up univariate F ratios. Most of the findings support the predictions based on self-esteem theory; i.e., satisfaction with performance, rather than consistency of performance with self-esteem, served as the primary influence on internalization of causality, with students internalizing satisfying outcomes more than dissatisfying outcomes. Cognitive-consistency theory and B. Weiner's (1979, Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 3–25) attribution proposal regarding maintenance of a stable self-concept also received support, as attributions to the internal and stable causal sources of ability and general effort were a function of an interaction of self-esteem and performance satisfaction. Hence, neither self-theory adequately anticipated the effects of self-esteem and performance satisfaction on causal internalization. Rather, a consolidation of theories is needed to explain the results.     

Attribution theory and unemployment: Kelley's covariation model,self-esteem,and locus of control

The validity of applying Kelley, 1967, Kelley, 1973, 28, 107–128) to understanding the perceived causes of success and failure of others' job seeking activities was first tested in a laboratory study before testing the same theory on the self-attributions made by 82 unemployed in a field study. The field study also examined the relationship of self-esteem and locus of control to attributions for success and failure. In general Kelley's theory was supported by the results from the laboratory study but only two of the twelve predicted relationships were found in the field study. Low distinctiveness (weak workrelated skills) was associated with strong attributions to lack of ability and low consistency (past job seeking activities successful) with strong attributions to bad luck. As predicted the unemployed with high self-esteem and an internal locus of control attributed failure to lack of effort and credited their success to ability. Unemployed with low self-esteem and an external locus of control attributed success to unstable factors, but failure was not attributed to lack of ability. Possible reasons offered for the lack of support for Kelley's theory in the field study included the influence of group identity, individual differences in the perception of the stability and locus of causes, the greater realism of the field setting, and the inadequacy of the assumptions underlying the model.     

Working mothers,sex differences,and self-esteem in college students' self-descriptions

This study examined whether a relationship exists between maternal employment and self-esteem of offspring. A questionnaire incorporating the Adjective Generation Technique (AGT) was administered to undergraduate psychology students from intact two-parent families. Subjects were divided into four categories: males whose mothers worked during their childhood (n=33), males whose mothers remained home (n=49), females whose mothers worked (n=54), and females whose mothers remained home (n=49). Data were analyzed using a 2 × 2 analysis of variance. Results indicated no differences in self-esteem for subjects of either sex in conjunction with the employment of their mothers. Instead, the subject's sex was the critical component affecting self-esteem. Males reported themselves significantly more favorably than did females.     

Acceptance and need for approval as moderators of self-esteem and satisfaction with a romantic relationship or closest friendship

According to predictions of self-esteem theorists, the association between self-esteem and satisfaction with a relationship will be negative under perceptions of high acceptance and positive under perceptions of low acceptance; consistency theorists make the opposite prediction. The author primarily sought to test those predictions. By completing 4 measures, 88 female and 62 male students described their main current romantic relationship (defined as being in love and physically intimate), and 54 female and 32 male students described their relationship with their closest friend. Results supported only the self-esteem predictions for the romantic relationship. Contrary to this perspective, need for approval did not mediate this effect. In addition, self-esteem was significantly and positively correlated with satisfaction with the romantic relationship under high but not low need for approval.     

Racial Identity and Gender as Moderators of the Relationship Between Body Image and Self-esteem for African Americans

This study explored whether multiple dimensions of racial identity and gender moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem for African American men and women (N?=?425) using an intersectional approach. Centrality (strength of identification with racial group), private regard (positive feelings about racial group), public regard (positive feelings others have about racial group), and gender moderated the relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem for a sample of men (n?=?109) and women (n?=?316) college students from three regions of the United States. Body dissatisfaction was related to lower self-esteem only for those African Americans for whom race was less central to their identities. High private regard and low body dissatisfaction were synergistically associated with higher self-esteem. Similarly, low public regard and high body dissatisfaction were synergistically related to lower self-esteem. There was a positive main effect for assimilation ideology (emphasis on similarities between African Americans and Western society) on self-esteem; however it was not a significant moderator. The relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem was stronger for women than for men. This study extends our knowledge of the ways in which racial attitudes and gender shape how African Americans experience their bodies and are related to self-esteem.     

The Repercussions of Emotional Abuse and Parenting Styles on Self-Esteem,Subjective Well-Being: A Retrospective Study with University Students in Brazil

This study verified the differences in the incidence of memory of emotional abuse among the different parenting styles in students from 18 to 30 years of age at a university in southern Brazil. The relationship between memory of emotional abuse and self-esteem, and subjective well-being was also examined. Students (n = 293) completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, published scales measuring self-esteem, life satisfaction, parenting styles, and self-report questionnaires. Negative correlations were found between emotional abuse and self-esteem, positive affect, and life satisfaction. Positive correlations were found between emotional abuse, age, and negative affect. Memories of emotional abuse were significantly more frequent in students who reported being raised under negligent and authoritarian parenting styles than in those who were raised under the other parenting styles.     

The roles of self-esteem and n achievement in aspiring to prestigious vocations

This study investigated several hypotheses relevant to the vocational aspiration process as it is related to self-esteem and n Achievement. One hundred and forty-four male college students completed the Attitudes Toward Occupation Questionnaire, Form B of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Adjective Check List. To investigate the differential relationships of self-esteem and n Achievement with vocational aspirations, each hypothesis was tested by computing partial correlations, controlling first for n Achievement and then for self-esteem. The data indicated a positive relationship between self-esteem and the tendency to aspire to vocations with high prestige. This finding was interpreted as providing an extension of Super's self-implementation theory. Additionally, the data revealed (a) the existence of a negative relationship between self-esteem and the tendency to strive for vocations with less prestige than one's perceived vocational upper limit, and (b) contrary to prediction, a significant positive relationship between self-esteem and the tendency to settle for vocations which have less satisfaction associated with them than with one's perceived vocational upper limit.     

Locus-of-hope and life satisfaction: The mediating roles of personal self-esteem and relational self-esteem

Research has demonstrated that hope is linked to better psychological well-being; however, little research has been conducted to examine the mechanisms underlying the link between hope and psychological well-being. The current study examined whether two types of self-esteem (personal and relational) would mediate the relationship between four loci-of-hope (internal, family, peers, and spiritual) and life satisfaction among Hong Kong and Macau college students (n = 1008). Structural equation modelling was used to test the hypotheses. Consistent with the hypotheses, both personal self-esteem and relational self-esteem partially mediated the effects of internal hope on life satisfaction. Moreover, relational self-esteem mediated the effect of external-family locus-of-hope on life satisfaction. Interestingly, a suppressing effect of personal self-esteem on the relationship between external-peers locus-of-hope and life satisfaction was found. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

THE INFLUENCE OF MOTHER-DAUGHTER RELATIONSHIPS ON WOMEN'S SENSE OF SELF AND CURRENT ROLE CHOICES

This study investigates the relationship of women's current role choices, role satisfaction, and self-esteem to their perceptions of the earlier relationship with their mothers and to their perceptions of their mothers' role choices and role satisfaction. Sixty-seven married women with preschool children were interviewed and completed self-report inventories. Results indicated that the women's primary role decisions of career, non-career work, or homemaking did not parallel those of their mothers but was related to their mothers' messages to them. In addition, career women and women at home reported having more choice in their decisions than did non-career working women. Women's self-esteem and role satisfaction were significantly enhanced ( p <.05) when the relationship with the mother was perceived as loving and accepting, with low hostility and low psychological control. In contrast, women's self-esteem and role satisfaction were generally unrelated to the retrospective reports of the mothers' roles and role satisfaction.     

Congruency,consistency, and differentiation as predictors of job satisfaction within the nursing occupation

Holland's (Making vocational choices: A theory of careers, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973) congruency, consistency, and differentiation terms were used as independent variables to predict job satisfaction (JS) within the scope of a single occupation, rather than on the comparison between occupations. Based on the responses of 126 registered nurses on the specially designed List of Courses in Nursing (LCN) Inventory the congruence hypothesis was confirmed, while the consistency and differentiation hypotheses were only partially supported. The hypothesis on the additive relationship among congruence, consistency, and differentiation with JS was confirmed. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The relationship between procrastination,delay of gratification,and job satisfaction among high school teachers

The present study aimed at determining whether a significant relationship exists between procrastination, delay of gratification, and job satisfaction, with work‐related stress as an intervening variable among high school teachers. The sample consisted of 150 high school teachers from Karachi, Pakistan. The analysis showed a negative correlation between procrastination and job satisfaction, and a positive correlation between delay of gratification and job satisfaction. Also, procrastination and delay of gratification were significant predictors of work‐related stress, and work‐related stress was also a significant predictor of job satisfaction. In conclusion, when the teachers are not procrastinating on their job and score high on delay of gratification they will be more satisfied with their job and feel less stressed.     

The hierarchy of consistency: A review and model of longitudinal findings on adult individual differences in intelligence,personality and self-opinion

When viewed in the aggregate, studies of the longitudinal consistency of intelligence, personality traits and self-opinion (self-esteem, life satisfaction etc.) show a hierarchy of consistency. Uncorrected retest coefficients over periods of 6 months to 50 yr are analyzed as the product of period-free reliability (R) and the true stability of the construct (sⁿ, where s is the coefficient of annual stability and n the number of years of the retest interval). The annual stabilities of intelligence, personality traits and self-opinions are estimated as 0.99, 0.98 and 0.94, respectively. While intelligence and personality may be regarded as relatively stable characteristics over the length of the adult lifespan, self-opinion has little stability over periods of more than 10 yr. The hierarchy of consistency should be taken into account in causal models of human development. Although self-opinion is not a longitudinally-stable characteristics, it may still be predicted over long periods of time by higher-order constructs such as personality traits and intelligence.     

Self-esteem and job complexity as moderators of performance and satisfaction

Self-esteem and job complexity were investigated as moderators of self, supervisor, and peer ratings of performance and satisfaction with work, supervisors, and peers testing balance and activation theories. One hundred and fifty-three registered nurses served as subjects. Measured self-esteem was not significantly related to the performance or satisfaction measures. Rather, the important variable was perceived job complexity as predicted by Scott's activation theory. Self-ratings of performance and satisfaction with work and peers were greatest at optimal complexity with lower values at high and low complexity. Some support was found for self-esteem as a moderator of the relationship between performance and satisfaction measures in line with Korman's formulations.     

Global self-esteem,perceived athletic competence,and physical activity in children: A longitudinal cohort study

ObjectivesThe Exercise and Self-Esteem Model is used as a theoretical framework to describe associations between global self-esteem and physical activity, mediated by perceived athletic competence. We know little about how these associations develop over time in elementary school children. We examined the change in, and associations between, global self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in children from kindergarten to grade 4. We also investigated if this change and these associations were different for boys and girls.DesignA prospective longitudinal cohort-sequential design that consisted of two cohorts of children.MethodChildren in cohort I were followed from kindergarten to grade 2, and children in cohort II were followed from grade 2 to grade 4. Global self-esteem and perceived athletic competence were measured with the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC) (n = 292; 148 boys), while MVPA was measured with proxy-reports for physical activity filled in by parents (n = 184; 88 boys).ResultsGlobal self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and MVPA remained stable. Global self-esteem was the same in boys and girls, while boys reported higher levels of perceived athletic competence and were more physically active than girls. The change in global self-esteem was significantly associated with perceived athletic competence and MVPA in girls, but not in boys.ConclusionThere are few developmental changes in global self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and MVPA from kindergarten to grade 4. The change in global self-esteem was associated with perceived athletic competence and MVPA in girls, but not in boys.     

Naked and Unashamed: Investigations and Applications of the Effects of Naturist Activities on Body Image,Self-Esteem,and Life Satisfaction

Body image dissatisfaction is a serious, global problem that negatively affects life satisfaction. Several claims have been made about the possible psychological benefits of naturist activities, but very little empirical research has investigated these benefits or any plausible explanations for them. In three studies—one large-scale, cross-sectional study (n = 849), and 2 prospective studies (n = 24, n = 100) this research developed and applied knowledge about the possible benefits of naturist activities. It was found that more participation in naturist activities predicted greater life satisfaction—a relationship that was mediated by more positive body image, and higher self-esteem (Study 1). Applying these findings, it was found that participation in actual naturist activities led to an increase in life satisfaction, an effect that was also mediated by improvements in body image and self-esteem (Studies 2 and 3). The potential benefits of naturism are discussed, as well as possible future research, and implications for the use of naturist activities.     

Biopsychosocial and Physical Correlates of Middle School Boys’ and Girls’ Body Satisfaction

Boys (n?=?629) and girls (n?=?659) in grades 6 through 8 in the U.S. completed self-report measures of pubertal development, weight pressures, internalization, social appearance comparison, self-esteem, depression, and physical self-concept, and objective measures of cardiorespiratory fitness and BMI. Regression analyses revealed that gender moderated the strength of the relationships between the variables and body satisfaction (girls—Adj. R ²?=?.49; boys—Adj. R ²?=?.20), though BMI, pressures, physical self-concept, and self-esteem were related significantly for each gender. Girls were most affected by pressures related to weight loss, whereas gaining weight and musculature was most salient for boys. Future research needs to examine longitudinally how these variables contribute to the development of body satisfaction.     

Amount of altruistic punishment accounts for subsequent emotional gratification in participants with primary psychopathy

We are often willing to incur personal costs in order to punish people that violate group norms. Previous studies have suggested that high-psychopathy participants may engage in more such “altruistic punishment behaviors” than those with lower levels of psychopathy. Although this finding could suggest that psychopathy is in fact associated with prosocial behavior, high-psychopathy participants show clear evidence of various decision-making and emotional deficits. It is therefore possible that the increased altruistic punishment behavior observed in psychopathy participants is in some fashion related to such deficits. To address this possibility, we administered the altruistic punishment paradigm to a group of university students with low and high levels of psychopathy (N = 50). We found that high-psychopathy participants (n = 24) gave defectors significantly more punishment than did low psychopathy participants (n = 26), under personally costly conditions. Furthermore, a mediational analysis revealed that the amount of altruistic punishment administered completely mediated the relationship between primary psychopathy and a person’s emotional gratification subsequent to performing the altruistic punishment behavior. These findings suggest that while high psychopathy participants do appear to engage in greater levels of altruistic punishment behavior, they may do this largely for their own emotional gratification.     

Self-esteem as a moderator of performance-satisfaction relationships

Korman's (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1968, 52, 484–490) prediction that performance and satisfaction should be positively related for high self-esteem individuals and unrelated for low self-esteem individuals was tested with samples of scientists, engineers, homemakers, firefighters, and clerical workers. Although there was a slight tendency for this prediction to be supported with the male scientist, engineer, and firefighter samples, Korman's theory was unsupported in the homemaker and clerical worker samples. Since the correlations found for low and high self-esteem persons significantly differed in only one of eight comparisons, self-esteem did not appear to be a reliable moderator of the performance-satisfaction relationship. Problems with previous studies purporting to test Korman's prediction are discussed, and the possibility of a confound between self-esteem and sex role and/or status is introduced.     

The redundancy of work alienation and job satisfaction: Some evidence of convergent and discriminant validity

The multitrait-multimethod matrix (MTMM) technique was used in an attempt to help clarify the ambiguities regarding concepts of work alienation, job satisfaction, and the relationships between them. Within each attitude domain considered separately, generally acceptable evidence of convergent and (to a lesser degree) discriminant validity was found for the trait measures (four dimensions of alienation and five of satisfaction). However, the discrimination between alienation and satisfaction measures was no greater than that among satisfaction and among alienation, casting doubt on the demarcation of these as two distinct domains. The measures of satisfaction and alienation also were not correlated differentially with demographic and self-esteem measures. Note was taken of the limitations in our knowledge and operationalization of these areas, as these relate to the assumptions of MTMM technique regarding independence of both underlying trait constructs and measurement methods.     

Managerial career stage and facets of job satisfaction

The purpose of the present study was to assess the relationship between a three-stage model of careers (establishment, advancement, and maintenance) and facets of managers' job satisfaction. Four hundred eighty-three managers responded to a questionnaire regarding the length of time they had been in their occupation and their satisfaction with various aspects of work. The results indicated that career stage moderated managers' satisfaction with all facets of work. Specifically, managers in the establishment stage were significantly more satisfied than those in the advancement and maintenance stages with five of the six facets studied. Further analyses indicated that the first year in the occupation accounted for the differences in satisfaction obtained in the three-stage model. The results are discussed in terms of the implications for the study of managerial careers and the need for consistency in the operational definition of career stages.