THE EFFECTS OF ALIGNABILITY ON MEMORY

Abstract— According to structure-mapping theory, the process of comparison in one of alignment and mapping between representational structures. This process induces a focus on commonalities and alignable differences (i.e., those related to the commonalities). Non-alignable differences (i.e., those not related to the commonalities) are held to be neglected. The theory thus predicts increased focus on the corresponding information, Whether these are commonalities or differences. In this article, we explore the implications of this claim for memory: Specifically, we test the prediction that alignable differences are more likely to be processed and stored than nonalignable differences.
We present a study in which people made similarity comparisons between pairs of pictures and then were probed for recall. The recall probes were figures taken from the pictures and were either alignable or nonalignable differences between the pairs. The alignable differences were better memory probes than the nonalignable differences, suggesting that people were more likely to encode and store the corresponding information than the noncorresponding information.     

意志与意识对记忆的交互影响

运用加工分离程序,研究了编码和提取时不同意志和意识水平对部首补笔的影响。结果发现：除编码阶段和提取阶段的意志之间不存在交互作用之外,同一阶段和（或）不同阶段的意志和（或）意识之间均存在显著的或非常显著的交互作用。研究表明：意志和意识两个因素对记忆存在复杂影响,在记忆研究中应关注意志因素的作用。研究结果验证了记忆的状态依存性。     

恐惧情绪对大鼠学习记忆的影响

通过对４组不同处理背景动物操作条件学习的实验研究,观察强噪音下恐惧情绪对动物学习、记忆的影响以及怎样通过系统脱敏来减少恐惧在其中的作用。结果发现：恐惧组大鼠的操作条件学习具有第一次联系（健盘与食物之间）成功所需时间短、旧技能遗忘快、重新学习次数多和学习成绩差等特征;恐惧组大鼠与学习无关的恐惧行为增多,严重干扰学习的控制加工过程,影响学习任务完成;强噪音脱敏组大鼠学习过程、学习成绩的各项指标与控制组无差异。     

EFFECTS OF MEMORY AIDS ON THE DYADIC CONVERSATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS WITH DEMENTIA

The effects of a prosthetic memory aid on the conversational content and social skills of dyads with dementia were evaluated. Six individuals with moderate to severe dementia served as either subject or partner in dyads during 5-min conversational probes conducted three times per week in daycare and nursing-home settings. During phases when a memory aid, consisting of personally relevant picture and sentence stimuli, was available, most subjects used their own aid to improve the quality of conversations by increasing the frequency of on-topic statements, diminishing nonproductive utterances, lengthening their conversational turn, and/or increasing the frequency of turns taken. Most partners demonstrated awareness of social discourse conventions by appropriately relinquishing conversational dominance, decreasing both content and nonproductive utterances, and increasing acknowledging or affirmative comments when subjects used memory aids. Naive judges' ratings of aided and unaided conversational samples on seven conversational dimensions reflected differences in perceptions of significant improvement as a function of the conversational discourse style of each dyad.     

启动情绪和呈现方式对错误记忆的影响

采用DRM范式(Deese-Roediger-Mc Dermott paradigm),考察了启动情绪状态下词表项目的呈现方式对错误记忆的影响。结果发现:(1)启动情绪主效应不显著。(2)词表项目的呈现方式主效应显著。(3)启动情绪与呈现方式间存在交互作用。在愉快启动情绪状态下分组呈现的错误再认率明显高于随机呈现条件;当词表项目分组呈现时,三种情绪状态下的错误再认率有显著差异,其中愉快启动情绪下的错误再认率最高,其次是悲伤情绪,最低的为对照组—非启动情绪状态。说明启动的愉快情绪增强了对关键诱饵的连续激活累积效应,从而导致对关键诱饵较高的错误再认率。     

心理表征对正投影问题解决及轴测投影图再认水平的影响

借鉴内隐记忆的研究范式,采用平面、分离的正投影问题解决及其相应轴测投影图的再认任务,探讨问题表征的结构特征性对空间问题解决和再认水平的影响。实验结果表明,一般在正投影问题获得正确解决时,对其相应的、先前从未见到过的轴测投影图往往也可获得正确再认,而且基于正投影问题获得正确解决条件下的再认水平（PCC）显著地高于那些问题未得获得解决下的再认水平（PCI）。在结合被试口语记录的基础上,研究结果证明：基于正投影图上的问题解决过程是受到一个具有三维结构特性而非正投影图中二维特性心理表征的调节;并且,正是这一具有三维结构特性心理表征的建构,使得对具有相同结构特性的轴测投影图获得了更为有效的再认。     

EFFECTS OF EXPECTATIONS AND BODILY SENSATIONS ON SELF-REPORTS OF PREMENSTRUAL SYMPTOMS

Two experiments examined expectations and bodily sensations in premenstrual symptom reports. Women took a fictitious test that indicated they were either premenstrual or intermenstrual. In Experiment 1, 48 women were studied during their premenstrual phase. In Experiment 2, 82 women were studied during either their premenstrual or intermenstrual phase. Individual differences in retrospective premenstrual distess were assessed prior to the experiments. Both experiments revealed that the higher the woman's retrospective reports of premenstrual distress, the more symptoms she reported in the lab during her premenstrual phase, regardless of what the test indicated. However, women who were told they were premenstrual reported greater symptoms than women who were told they were intermenstrual. In summary, although expectations affect women's symptom reports regardless of their actual phase and history of reported symptoms, premenstrual symptom reports cannot be dismissed as simply expectations, because some women do experience greater symptoms as they approach menstruation.     

THE SIMILARITY OF BRAIN ACTIVITY ASSOCIATED WITH TRUE AND FALSE RECOGNITION MEMORY DEPENDS ON TEST FORMAT

Abstract— Event-related potentials (ERPs) were compared for correct recognitions of previously presented words and false recognitions of associatively related, nonpresented words (lures). When the test items were presented blocked by test type (old, new, lure), waveforms for old and lure items were different, especially at frontal and left parietal electrode sites, consistent with previous positron emission tomography (PET) data (Schacter, Reiman, et. al., 1996). When the test format randomly intermixed the types of items, waveforms for old and lure items were more similar. We suggest that test format affects the type of processing subjects engage in, consistent with expectations from the source-monitoring framework (Johnson, Hashtroudi, & Lindsay, 1993). These results also indicate that brain activity as assessed by neuroimaging designs requiring blocked presentation of trials (e g, PET) do not necessarily reflect the brain activity that occurs in cognitive-behavioral paradigms, in which types of test trials are typically intermixed.     

MODELING THE EFFECTS OF BANDING IN PERSONNEL SELECTION

Selection outcomes under banding are affected by characteristics of the selection system and the applicant pool. This study examined the effects of eight parameters on the proportions hired from higher- and lower-scoring groups: (a) selection ratio; (b) reliability; (b) fixed vs. sliding bands; (d) top-down vs. random within-band selection; (e) preferential vs. nonpreferential selection; (f) mean differences; (g) standard deviation differences; and (h) proportion of applicants from the lower-scoring group. Simulation results were analyzed in a fully-crossed eight-way ANOVA. Higher-order interactions among selection system and applicant pool characteristics had virtually no effect on selection outcomes; the proportion of the applicant pool from the lower-scoring group accounted for nearly half the variance in out-comes. Other important effects are, in order, the effects of standard deviation differences, mean differences, preferential hiring, and the selection ratio. Applicant pool characteristics have considerably more influence on selection outcomes than do selection system characteristics.     

THE EVOLVING MANAGER STEREOTYPE: THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRY GENDER TYPING ON PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS FOR LEADERS AND THEIR TEAMS

This study examined how external evaluators' assessments of a management team and its leader are impacted by congruence between the leader's gender and the gender typing of the industry in which the team works. We experimentally tested our theory using industries that are either male typed or gender neutral, with teams led by male and female leaders. Results indicate that performance expectations for the team were more favorable when the leader's gender was congruent with the industry's gender typing, but expectations for the leader were not affected by gender congruence. These findings paradoxically suggest that evaluators form performance expectations for teams based upon individual characteristics of their leaders, even when these characteristics have no effect on the conscious assessments of the leaders themselves.     

ON THE PROBLEM OF SELECTION IN ICONIC MEMORY

von W right J. M. On the problem of selection in iconic memory. Scad J. Psychol ., 1972, 1 3 , 159–171.—Conditions determining the selection of items in iconic memory were analysed. The accuracy of partial reports and the strategies adopted by the subjects varied regularly as a function of the mode of report as well as of the subject's uncertainty about the type of response he would be asked to make. By varying these factors, the apparently conflicting results of previous studies could be fairly well replicated. In optimal conditions, selection by simple physical characteristics was efficient whereas selection by class (letterslnumbers) remained difficult. Similar results were obtained when precue and postcue conditions were compared. The role of output interference and of the subjects' encoding and response strategies are discussed.     

A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY OF RECOGNITION MEMORY FOR FACES1

The hypothesis that subjects would show superior memory for faces of members of their own ethnic group compared with those of a different ethnic group was tested in a cross-cultural experiment. Thirty two African and 32 European subjects were presented with coloured photographs of ten black Africans and ten white Europeans, with the instruction to try to remember them. Twenty four hours later, the subjects were presented with the same photographs shuffled with an equal number of new photographs of Africans and Europeans, and were asked to identify those they had seen before. The index d' was used as a measure of recognition. As predicted, European subjects were superior at recognising European faces compared with African faces, and African subjects were superior at recognising African faces compared with European faces. Response bias data indicated that European subjects had a differential response bias for the photographs of the two ethnic groups, but African subjects did not differ in their bias towards the two ethnic groups. African subjects did, however, show differential response bias for sex within the European faces. The results were discussed in terms of perceptual discrimination and stereotyping.     

THE EFFECTS OF OBSERVER EXPECTATIONS,TASK AMBIGUITY,AND MEDIUM OF PRESENTATION ON LOW- AND HIGH-INFERENCE JUDGMENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR1

This study investigated the effects of observer expectations about a speaker's nonfluency level on nonfluency counts made during a taped speech and on post-performance evaluations of nonfluency, anxiety, central idea, organization, language, delivery, and general effectiveness. The influence of task ambiguity and medium of presentation on expectancy effects was also explored. Results indicate: (a) in a high-ambiguity condition, observers who expected a fluent speaker counted fewer nonfluencies in his speech than observers who expected a nonfluent speaker; (b) fluent-expectation observers rated the speaker more positively on the seven evaluative measures; (c) low task ambiguity eliminated expectancy effects on nonfluency counts and ratings of organization but not on the other six evaluative measures; and (d) auditory and auditory-visual presentations of the speech did not produce significant differences.     

文字再认的内隐和外显记忆的发展研究

本研究旨在探索内隐和外显记忆的毕生发展模式。实验采用5(年龄:老年、中年、大学生、初三和高小)×2(贡献来源:意识和无意识)的两因素混合设计,通过加工分离程序(PDP)的包含和排除测验,计算意识和无意识的贡献大小。结果显示:(1)在文字再认的意识贡献中,年龄差异极其显著。高小(11岁左右)的意识贡献水平达到最高点;从初三开始,意识贡献水平呈倒U曲线发展。(2)在文字材料再认的无意识贡献水平上,年龄差异不显著。事实说明,内隐记忆和外显记忆存在发展性的分离,支持多重记忆系统理论。     

三维物体图形的大小和颜色影响内隐和外显记忆的实验研究

本研究探索非言语信息的内隐记忆。用新异的不熟悉的三维物体图形作为实验材料,物体决定测验评价内隐记忆,是/否再认测验评价外显记忆,操纵学习(?)测验间物体图形的颜色(实验一)和大小(实验二),80名被试参加实验一,另80名参加实验二。结果发现:(1)存在着非言语信息的内隐记忆,且与外显记忆相分离;(2)新异的不熟悉三维物体的颜色和大小由外显记忆的情节系统所表征,而非属于结构表征系统,从而支持多重记忆系统假说。     

储存负荷量对内隐记忆效果的影响

为了解储存负荷量对内隐记忆效果的影响而进行本实验研究。实验采用Jacoby过程分离程序范式,用英文辅音字母组成无意义字母串作记忆实验材料,用彼德生的减数干扰分心技术。结果发现：储存负荷量对内隐记忆效果的影响与外显记忆的不同,随着储存负荷量的增加,内隐记忆即自动性提取的作用先下降,后又有所上升,最后渐趋稳定,在负荷量为6以后保持在一个相当稳定的水平。本实验对内隐记忆研究具有参考价值。     

EFFECTS OF CONTEXTUAL RICHNESS ON WORD RECOGNITION IN POINTED AND UNPOINTED HEBREW

Forty Israeli adults, fluent readers of Hebrew, and 40 Israeli children, age 11‐12, participated in two studies which investigated the contextual facilitation and word frequency effects upon word recognition accuracy and reading rate while reading two types of Hebrew texts (pointed and unpointed). In the first experiment pointed Hebrew text was read more accurately and rapidly than unpointed text by both groups, but only the children's performances were significantly different on the two text types.

In the second experiment both groups displayed significant effects for context richness, word frequency and type of Hebrew text based upon an analysis of errors made when reading experimental sentences. These results challenge Levy's (1943) contention that unpointed Hebrew text is superior to pointed text and add support to the universality of contextual facilitation effects upon word recognition.     

单眼视剥夺2小时对雏鸡记忆保持的影响

以2日龄雏鸡为研究对象,采用一次性被动回避学习模型,以不透明胶纸封贴一侧眼的方法,研究2日龄雏鸡单侧眼视剥夺2小时后对视觉学习记忆的影响,并与双眼学习条件下的记忆情况进行比较;试图探讨雏鸡在视觉信息加工过程中左、右半球的作用。实验结果表明：剥夺一侧眼（无论左或右）2小时后对雏鸡的短时记忆无影响,明显干扰雏鸡的中期和长时记忆,特别是剥夺左眼干扰更明显。     

注意对半视野识别汉字的影响

用视觉外周呈现光点以控制注意的方法,对识别具体和抽象性汉字的脑功能偏侧化进行了研究。注意线索与刺激字在同侧视野呈现的间隔时间（ＳＯＡ）分为０、２９和５７ｍｓ。结果表明,具体性字在三种ＳＯＡ都表现出右视野左半球优势;而抽象性字在０ｍｓ两视野的识别成绩一样好。因此在偏侧视野识别汉字词中注意和脑结构因素似乎起着综合作用。