Recombinative generalization of within-syllable units in prereading children

This study demonstrates recombinative generalization of within-syllable units in prereading children. Three kindergarten children learned to select printed consonant-vowel-consonant words upon hearing the corresponding spoken words. The words were taught in sets; there were six sets, presented consecutively. Within sets, the four words that were taught had overlapping letters, for example, sat, mat, sop, and sug. Tests for recombinative generalization determined whether the children selected novel words with the same components as the trained words (e.g., mop and mug). Two children demonstrated recombinative generalization after one training set, and the 3rd demonstrated it after two training sets. In contrast, 2 other children, who received tests but no training, showed low accuracy across six sets. The 3 experimental children then demonstrated highly accurate printed-word-to-picture matching, and named the majority of the printed words. These findings are a promising step in the development of a computerized instructional technology for reading.     

Effects of delayed constructed-response identity matching on spelling of dictated words

We studied the effects of delayed constructed-response identity matching on spelling with 6 first graders with histories of school failure. After training, the children learned to spell words to dictation and their cursive writing improved. These results replicate studies showing that delayed constructed-response matching establishes spelling. For 2 children, spelling of generalization words--words formed by recombining the syllables of training words--also improved. These results extend studies that have shown recombinative generalization in reading and spelling.     

The use of matrix training to promote generative language with children with autism

Matrix training consists of planning instruction by arranging components of desired skills across 2 axes. After training with diagonal targets that each combine 2 unique skill components, responses to nondiagonal targets, consisting of novel combinations of the components, may emerge. A multiple‐probe design across participants was used to evaluate matrix training with known nouns (e.g., cat) and verbs (e.g., jumping) with 5 children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Following baseline of Matrix 1 and a generalization matrix, diagonal targets within Matrix 1 were trained as noun–verb combinations (e.g., cat jumping). Posttests showed recombinative generalization within Matrix 1 and the generalization matrix for 4 participants. For 1 participant, diagonal training across multiple matrices was provided until correct responding was observed in the generalization matrix. Results support the use of matrix training to promote untrained responses for learners with ASD and offer a systematic way to evaluate the extent of generalization within and across matrices.     

Recombinative reading derived from pseudoword instruction in a miniature linguistic system

A miniature linguistic system was used to study acquisition of recombinative symbolic behavior. Three studies evaluated the teaching conditions of conditional discriminations with printed and spoken pseudowords that could potentially generate recombinative reading. Fifty-four college students across all studies learned to match 12 printed pseudowords to 12 spoken pseudowords. Some also matched pictures to the same spoken words. Each two-syllable pseudoword was formed by symbols from an arbitrarily created alphabet composed of four vowels and four consonants. Letters had univocal correspondence with phonemes. Recombinative receptive reading, comprehensive reading, and textual responding to pseudowords were periodically assessed. Experiment 1 (n = 20) showed that recombinative reading increased as the number of trained words composed of the same symbols increased. Experiment 2 (n = 14) showed that overtraining the same two words did not produce recombinative reading for most participants. Experiment 3 (n = 20), in which training with pictures was omitted, showed that elemental control by within-syllable units can develop even when the trained pseudowords are meaningless (not related to pictures). The present results support the utility of the miniature linguistic system methodology for identifying and controlling environmental determinants of rudimentary reading skills.     

Generative time telling in adults with disabilities: A matrix training approach

Matrix training is a teaching strategy designed to facilitate generative responding through a process termed recombinative generalization. A skill that has yet to be addressed with matrix training is tacting time increments. Given the two‐component features of time telling (i.e., hours and minutes) and the numerous teaching targets, matrix training was implemented for such behavior with two adults with developmental disabilities. This study used a 12 × 12 matrix that consisted of 144 time increments. Participants were taught 12 time increments, and probes were conducted to assess the remaining 132 untrained time increments. The participants responded correctly to approximately 50% of the untrained time increments during the post‐assessment phase. Limitations and future research are discussed.     

Stimulus generalization, discrimination learning, and peak shift in horses.

Using horses, we investigated three aspects of the stimulus control of lever-pressing behavior: stimulus generalization, discrimination learning, and peak shift. Nine solid black circles, ranging in size from 0.5 in. to 4.5 in. (1.3 cm to 11.4 cm) served as stimuli. Each horse was shaped, using successive approximations, to press a rat lever with its lip in the presence of a positive stimulus, the 2.5-in. (6.4-cm) circle. Shaping proceeded quickly and was comparable to that of other laboratory organisms. After responding was maintained on a variable-interval 30-s schedule, stimulus generalization gradients were collected from 2 horses prior to discrimination training. During discrimination training, grain followed lever presses in the presence of a positive stimulus (a 2.5-in circle) and never followed lever presses in the presence of a negative stimulus (a 1.5-in. [3.8-cm] circle). Three horses met a criterion of zero responses to the negative stimulus in fewer than 15 sessions. Horses given stimulus generalization testing prior to discrimination training produced symmetrical gradients; horses given discrimination training prior to generalization testing produced asymmetrical gradients. The peak of these gradients shifted away from the negative stimulus. These results are consistent with discrimination, stimulus generalization, and peak-shift phenomena observed in other organisms.     

The effect of the blackout method on acquisition and generalization

In discrimination training with the Lyons' blackout method, pecks to the negative stimulus are prevented by darkening the chamber each time the subject approaches the negative stimulus. Stimulus generalization along a stimulus dimension was measured after training with this method. For comparison, generalization was also measured after reinforced responding to the positive stimulus without discrimination training, and after discrimination training by extinction of pecks to the negative stimulus. The blackout procedure and the extinction of pecks to the negative stimulus both produced a peak shift in the generalization gradients. The results suggest that after discrimination training in which the positive and negative stimulus are on the same continuum, the blackout method produces extinction-like effects on generalization tests.     

Effects of stimulus similarity in discrimination training upon wavelength generalization in pigeons.

Thirty pigeons were given variable interval training to peck a 555-nm. light and then were tested for wavelength generalization. The subjects were later assigned to 1 of 3 groups, matched for both relative generalization slope and response rate. One group then received successive discrimination training between the 555-nm. stimulus (S+) and a vertical white line on a 555-nm. background (S minus); another group experienced the same S+ but a vertical white line on a black background as S minus. A third group received a comparable amount of single stimulus training with the 555-nm. value. On a second wavelength generalization test, the first group yielded greater sharpening of generalization than the second group, whereas the third group showed no change from Test 1. These results indicate that the sharpening of generalization gradients by discrimination training is directly related to the similarity of the discrimination training stimuli.     

Stimulus generalization following extradimensional and intradimensional training in educable retarded children

Five related experiments investigating stimulus generalization following go/no-go discrimination training of educable retarded children are reported. Experiment 1 employed an Extradimensional paradigm in which generalization testing was on the hue dimension following training on an independent (orientation) dimension. Following True discrimination training only 25% of children showed a decremental stimulus generalization gradient on the hue dimension, though all children exhibited flat gradients in Pseudodiscrimination and S+ only control groups. An increase in difficulty of the orientation discrimination in Experiment 2 did not increase the number of decremental gradients. In Experiment 3, children who exhibited decremental gradients in Experiments 1 and 2 underwent further generalization testing with modified stimuli to establish a symmetrical gradient peaked at a hue S+ to be employed in Experiments 4 and 5. In these experiments an Intradimensional paradigm was employed with S+ and S? stimuli drawn from the hue dimension. Excitatory control by S+ and inhibitory control by S? were demonstrated, as were inhibitory consequences of S? such as peak and area shift.     

Contrast and stimulus generalization following prolonged discrimination training

Different groups of pigeons received discrimination training in which the reinforcement-associated and extinction-associated stimuli were respectively either (a) a line tilt vs a blank key, (b) a blank key vs a line tilt, or (c) two different line tilts. The high response rates that developed to the positive stimulus in all groups during discrimination learning were maintained over 64 sessions of training. After these sessions, all subjects were tested for stimulus generalization along the line-tilt dimension. Gradients of relative (per cent) generalization around the stimulus associated with reinforcement (so-called excitatory gradients) and around the stimulus associated with extinction (so-called inhibitory gradients) were as steep as they typically are after much briefer training periods. These results do not support several of Terrace's predictions on the basis of the hypothesis that emotional responses develop to the stimulus associated with extinction during discrimination learning with errors, but eventually dissipate after extended training.     

Generalization of auditory intensity as a function of small amounts of discrimination training

Rats were trained on a two-valued auditory-intensity discrimination for 5, 2, 1 or 0 days. Then, the bar-press response rate was sampled in the presence of seven added discrimination stimuli (generalization) for seven days. Daily training sessions were 4 hr in length throughout the experiment. Only the five-day group exhibited a marked superiority on the multi-valued discrimination when contrasted with the group having had no prior simple discrimination training.     

An evaluation of a visual–visual successive matching‐to‐sample procedure to establish equivalence classes in adults

Traditionally, behavior analysts have studied stimulus equivalence using a matching‐to‐sample (MTS) preparation. Although researchers have shown the utility of MTS to yield equivalence classes, the procedure requires several prerequisite skills for a learner to accurately respond. Previous research with humans and nonhumans has shown that relational responding can be produced via compound stimulus discrimination and successive matching‐to‐sample (S‐MTS). We conducted four experiments with college students to further evaluate the effectiveness of S‐MTS in the establishment of stimulus relations. S‐MTS trials consisted of the presentation of a single sample stimulus followed by one comparison in a fixed location on a computer screen. Depending upon the sample–comparison relation, participants touched (i.e., go) or did not touch (i.e., no‐go) the comparison stimulus. Following training of the baseline relations (AB/BC), we assessed the emergence of symmetry, transitivity, and equivalence performances (i.e., BA/CB and AC/CA). Results support the utility of the S‐MTS procedure as a possible alternative to traditional MTS. This study has direct implications for participants for whom traditional three‐array MTS procedures may be challenging.     

Stimulus generalization following extra-dimensional training in educationally subnormal (severely) children.

The use of discrimination learning paradigms in the study of attentional transfer is discussed. The technique of go/no-go discrimination learning followed by stimulus generalization testing is contrasted with the more familiar simultaneous learning paradigm followed by a shift in the relevant cues. In the former paradigm the effect of training a discrimination on one dimension on the slope of the stimulus generalization gradient on an independent gradient dimension (extra-dimensional training) is assessed. A steepening of the gradient relative to appropriate control procedures is taken as evidence of positive attentional transfer. The relevance of the technique to the detailed study of attentional transfer in educationally subnormal (severely) (ESN(S)) children is considered. In Expt. I nine ESN(S) children were trained in a go/no-go discrimination involving stimuli differing in orientation, and were generalization tested on a dimension that was orthogonal, namely hue. Of the six subjects who learnt the discrimination five showed clear decremental gradients on the hue dimension. In contrast a Pseudo-Discrimination group (PD) of eight subjects matched to those in the TD group showed no gradients. These subjects were not trained in the orientation discrimination, but were reinforced for responding on 50 per cent of each of the S+ and S- stimulus presentations. They thus received equal exposure to, but no differential training on, the orientation dimension. An S+ only group of four subjects who received no exposure to the orientation stimuli showed no gradients when stimulus generalization testing on the hue continuum was carried out. The result is discussed in terms of transfer deriving from stimulus control by relational aspects of the stimuli; in terms of control by constant irrelevant stimuli; and in terms of the study of stimulus control in ESN(S) children. In Expt. II the influence of the codability of the colours on the location of the peak of the stimulus generalization gradients in the TD group is investigated.     

Generalization and response mediation of a conditional discrimination

Fifteen pigeons were given conditional discrimination training in which a colored sample stimulus determined which of two line comparison stimuli (vertical and horizontal) was correct. As part of the conditional discrimination procedure, birds were required to make an "observing response" to the sample stimulus presented on a wide key. The location on this key of the required observing response for the two sample stimuli differed by 0, 3, or 6 in. (0, 7.6, or 15.2 cm) for three groups of birds. Accuracy of conditional discrimination performance was directly related to the amount of separation. In subsequent generalization tests with novel sample stimuli, both observing-response location and comparison responding changed within the same region of the wavelength continuum from that appropriate for one of the training samples to that appropriate for the other. A maintained generalization test (continued reinforcement for training stimuli) revealed this relation more strongly. A test in which observing-response location was the only sample stimulus of a conditional discrimination revealed stimulus control by this observing response, supporting a response mediation interpretation of the data.     

GENERALIZED LANGUAGE LEARNING BY CHILDREN WITH SEVERE MENTAL RETARDATION: EFFECTS OF PEERS' EXPRESSIVE MODELING

In this study, we investigated the conditions that contribute to observational learning of generalized language in children with severe mental retardation. Matrix-training strategies were used to teach 6 children with mental retardation to combine known words into two- or three-word utterances consistent with syntactic rules. Subsequently, the children learned two or more unknown words concurrently, inducing word-referent relations consistent with these word order rules. Generalized learning of responses not taught directly was shown to be under experimental control using a multiple baseline design across submatrices. Expressive modeling of only four or five responses was sufficient to promote recombinative generalization in the expressive and receptive modalities. Thus, 95% to 98% of subjects' learning was attributed to generalization processes. This study demonstrates how the efficiency of language training with children with mental retardation might be enhanced by coupling observational learning and matrix-training strategies.     

Discrimination learning and stimulus generalization by impulsive and reflective children

The proposition that impulsive children inhibit expressive behavior less than reflective children was investigated by providing third grade impulsive and reflective boys with either differential or nondifferential forms or successive discrimination training prior to tests for stimulus generalization. Consistent with specific predictions derived from Spence's theory on the roles of excitation and inhibition, it was found that: (a) Reflectives acquired the discrimination more rapidly, (b) reflectives achieved a higher level of discriminative performance, (c) impulsives exhibited more variable response reates during the nonreinforced stimulus, and (d) the type of training interacted with the child's conceptual tempo to determine the elevation and shape of the post-discrimination generalization gradients. The results provide support for the construct validity of the Matching Familiar Figures Test of reflectivity-impulsivity.     

Unconscious processing of multiple nonadjacent letters in visually masked words

The claim that visually masked, unidentifiable ("subliminal") words are analyzed at the level of whole word meaning has been challenged by recent findings indicating that instead, analysis occurs mainly at the subword level. The present experiments examined possible limits on subword analysis. Experiment 1 obtained semantic priming from pleasant- and unpleasant-meaning subliminal words in which no individual letter contained diagnostic information about a word's evaluative valence; thus analysis must operate on information more complex than that contained in individual letters. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that analysis must operate on information more complex than that represented by individual bigrams (adjacent letters) or trigrams (three consecutive letters). These findings suggest that while subliminal priming is driven by subword analysis, the effective units of analysis are distributed widely across at least short (four- and five-letter) words.     

Analyzing conditions for recognizing pictures of family members in a patient with Alzheimer's disease

In the present study, an 89‐year‐old woman with the neurocognitive disorder Alzheimer's disease participated. The purpose was to study recognition of the participant's relatives' faces with the use of sorting tests and matching‐to‐sample (MTS) trainings and tests for emergent relations. The stimuli used were pictures of her relatives, their written names, and their family relationship. The study also focused on how responding to pictures of relatives changed over time. Therefore, the participant was presented with experimental conditions over three time periods. Time Period 1 included only sorting tests. In Time Period 2, which began 9 months after Time Period 1, the participant was presented with both sorting tests and conditional discrimination training and testing. In Time Period 3, which began 1 year after Time Period 2, both sorting tests and conditional discrimination training and testing were again presented. The results from Time Periods 2 and 3 showed that the percentage of stimuli sorted correctly was maintained over time. Additionally, the results from the MTS training and tests were maintained at the second follow‐up periods.     

Sentence comprehension and production in children with cochlear implants: Errorless procedures and equivalence-based instruction

Research supports equivalence-based instruction (EBI) and matrix training for increased listening and speaking skills in children with cochlear implants (CI). We incorporated errorless procedures to optimize the EBI and evaluated the effects on the auditory comprehension and verbal responding at-sentences level in six CI children who were readers and showed inaccurate tacting. Subject-verb-object sentences were arranged in two matrices; diagonal combinations were trained and evaluated non-diagonal combinations. EBI included stimulus fading and exclusion to directly teach the dictated sentence-picture matching; written-sentences construction upon dictation also was taught. Probes assessed the derived stimulus-stimulus and stimulus-response relations. All participants learned the auditory-visual discriminations and the exclusion resulted in fewer errors than on a stimulus fading procedure. Five participants formed equivalence classes and increased verbal responding to equivalent stimuli, especially pictures tacting. They also showed recombinative generalization for both matrices. Professionals can incorporate errorless procedures to EBI for improving sentence comprehension, tacting, and productivity in CI children.     

Stimulus control of Pavlovian facilitation

Two experiments were conducted using an autoshaping procedure with pigeons to examine whether dimensional stimulus control by a Pavlovian facilitator parallels the control established following operant discrimination training. Facilitation training consisted of the presentation of a black vertical line on a white background as the B stimulus in a feature-positive discrimination in which the A stimulus (white keylight) was followed by grain presentation only if preceded by B. In this way, B facilitates or sets the occasion for pecking at A. Subsequent testing for generalization along the line-orientation dimension produced decremental gradients when the facilitation paradigm incorporated an explicit feature-negative stimulus (B−). These results parallel the decremental control obtained following operant discrimination training and suggest that Pavlovian facilitators and instrumental discriminative stimuli are functionally equivalent.