新联结主义产生的心理学背景

新联结主义虽然是20世纪80年代早期所复兴的认知心理学的一种新的研究范式．但心理学史中早已存在这种思想的萌芽．这为新联结主义的产生提供了重要的心理学背景,本文主要从六个方面对此进行了分析。     

从个体主义到文化主义--心理学研究范式的转向与整合

西方心理学存在两种不同的研究范式,即个体主义和文化主义。文章拟以库恩的“范式”为标准,阐述西方心理学个体主义范式到文化主义范式的演变,剖析二者的基本观点及其优势和局限。在此基础上提出两者整合的构思。     

认知主义之后——从具身认知和延展认知的视角看

认知主义(cognitivisim)曾一度成为20世纪50年代起统治着心理学、语言学、哲学、计算机科学等学科的核心范式。70年代后期,认知科学的兴起、发展和演变,尤其是人工智能(以下简称AI)在发展中遇到的挑战,促使研究者开始反思认知主义范式是否需要被取代。在所有替代性方案中,具身认     

关于情绪的生理主义和认知主义的早期争论——詹姆斯和斯通普夫之争及其当代意义

当代的情绪研究主要分为认知主义和非认知主义(生理主义)两个阵营。认知主义认为，某种形式的认知(如判断或信念)就是情绪本身，或者是情绪的本质性要素。而生理主义认为，情绪是特定的生理活动或行为本身，或对这些活动与行为的感觉；情绪可以独立于甚至先于认知发生。当代理论家普遍认识到詹姆斯是生理主义的理论先驱，而当代认知主义正是在对詹姆斯理论的批评中不断成长。鲜有研究者看到，尽管斯通普夫通常被归于现象学一脉，但他与詹姆斯有着密切交往，而且早就直接回应过詹姆斯，并发展出认知主义情绪理论。斯通普夫认为，情绪是意向性地朝向被判断的事态的被动感觉状态。我们可以在当代认知主义和生理主义的框架内考量斯通普夫与詹姆斯的争论，这将对我们有深刻启发。从方法论上，情绪研究应该重视概念分析与经验研究的反思平衡；从实质上，根据对情绪中的认知和其他成分的关系的不同理解，可以有不同的认知主义和反认知主义，而斯通普夫提供了一种新的框架。     

简析音乐教育中行为主义、建构主义的运用

音乐教育心理学是心理学的一门分支学科，是研究音乐教育心理现象和规律的学科。本文主要结合教育心理学重要的三大流派，即行为主义、认知主义和构建主义，结合其主要的理论，阐述对音乐教育的作用及意义。     

冲突与消融:认知心理学与精神分析视界融合的新式

尽管看起来精神分析和认知心理学似乎并不相关,但它们之间也有一些明显的通路,使得精神分析有助于认知心理学,反之亦然。通过对经典的意识建构论的回溯,清理了精神分析与认知心理学视界融合的短暂历史,然后提出一种新的可能范式——意识与潜意识的两套转换机制,试图超越信息加工学派遭遇的深重困境;同时运用非线性动力学观点比较了弗洛伊德学派与联结主义范式在心理模型建构上的同构关系;最后将之提升到哲学层次对传统的科学与非科学的二元分裂式结构进行了解构主义的批判。     

心理学研究中的还原主义问题考察

还原主义是主导心理学研究的非常重要的理论原则。其核心思想是认为,世界是分层的梯级系统,可以通过已知的、低层级的事物或理论来解释与说明未知的、高层级的事物或理论。实证的科学心理学在自己的起步的阶段,曾经把物理学当成了自己的榜样,当成了自己的标准。心理学在解说人的心理行为的过程中,就把心理行为的规律归结为物理主义的规律。生物决定论观点认为人的心理或行为主要受人的生物因素所决定,人类的社会行为、人格乃至社会生活的基本方面都决定于这些个体、群体、种族或人种的生物因素。还原论与还原方法既有联系又存在着质的差别。还原论在心理学的研究中有其合理的地方。这也就可以区分出所谓的物理主义的还原,化学分析的还原、生物决定的还原、生理机制的还原、社会决定的还原、文化制约的还原,等等。在表面上看,心理学研究中的还原主义是一种简单化的或简约化的研究处理。但是,在深层上看,心理学研究却借助于还原论而形成了自己的研究框架。并且,这也是将各自不同学科的相关的探索转换成为了心理学的学术性资源。     

试析联结主义范式对婴儿发展的解释

用联结主义范式作为解释婴儿发展的机制已成为当前认知发展研究的新趋势。本文以婴儿分类和客体永久性为范例,分析了这一范式在解释婴儿发展方面的理论潜力及不足。     

文化视域下认知心理学范式演进探新

认知科学的发展历程经历了符号范式、联结主范式和具身认知范式的演变。认知心理学范式演变折射出认知心理学研究方式转变和对人的心智探索的深化,同时也反映出关于身心关系实现了从传统的身心二元对立到当下身心一体论的超越;对其文化反思是引领心理学从离身认知到具身认知进程更趋合理化的基础。     

人格心理学研究的新进展与问题

1　引言人格在心理学史上是唯一建立在几个不同的范式之上的领域。目前西方人格心理学正处在历史上最活跃的时期 ,不仅人格研究的传统范式依然活跃 ,而且产生了新的研究范式。本文就该领域的新近动态做一概览与述评。2　人格心理学经典范式的地位及新进展　　心理分析、特质论、行为主义和人本主义是人格研究的传统范式。近年来 ,这四种范式都已扩展了各自的领域。社会认知范式和生物学范式是新繁衍出的范式。2 .1　心理分析在众多的反对声中 ,心理分析的范式已经由轮椅上的沉思进化为一个实证的研究领域 ,尽管各派人格理论家对人格的描述和…     

Cognition and emotion: on paradigms and metaphors

ABSTRACT

The field of cognition and emotion is characterised as the cognitive psychology of evaluative and affective processes. The most important development in this field is the fruitful adoption of cognitive psychology paradigms to study automatic evaluation processes, for example. This has led to a plethora of findings and theories. Two points are emphasised: First, the (often metaphorical) theoretical way of thinking has changed over the decades. Theorising with symbolic models (e.g. semantic networks), which was prevalent in earlier years, has been replaced more recently by subsymbolic models (i.e. PDP models). It is argued that – despite their still metaphorical character – the latter are better suited to capturing characteristics of emotional processes. Second, the field has adopted the methods of experimental cognitive psychology to develop and refine paradigms as “windows to the mind”.     

Instance-based learning: integrating sampling and repeated decisions from experience

In decisions from experience, there are 2 experimental paradigms: sampling and repeated-choice. In the sampling paradigm, participants sample between 2 options as many times as they want (i.e., the stopping point is variable), observe the outcome with no real consequences each time, and finally select 1 of the 2 options that cause them to earn or lose money. In the repeated-choice paradigm, participants select 1 of the 2 options for a fixed number of times and receive immediate outcome feedback that affects their earnings. These 2 experimental paradigms have been studied independently, and different cognitive processes have often been assumed to take place in each, as represented in widely diverse computational models. We demonstrate that behavior in these 2 paradigms relies upon common cognitive processes proposed by the instance-based learning theory (IBLT; Gonzalez, Lerch, & Lebiere, 2003) and that the stopping point is the only difference between the 2 paradigms. A single cognitive model based on IBLT (with an added stopping point rule in the sampling paradigm) captures human choices and predicts the sequence of choice selections across both paradigms. We integrate the paradigms through quantitative model comparison, where IBLT outperforms the best models created for each paradigm separately. We discuss the implications for the psychology of decision making.     

Multiple levels of inquiry in cognitive science

Summary Gibsonian ecological psychology, symbolic information processing, and connectionist information processing are frequently construed as three competing paradigms or research traditions, each seeking dominance in experimental psychology and in cognitive science generally. There is an important element of truth in this perspective, and any adequate account of the development of experimental psychology over the past 30 years would have to examine seriously how the various conceptual frameworks, experimental endeavors, and social institutions have figured in this conflict. But the goal of this paper is not to characterize the historical dynamics within experimental psychology and cognitive science; rather, it is to consider what sorts of rapprochement is possible. Rapprochement, however, is not sought simply for its own sake or out of an a priori conviction that scientific enterprises should be unified. Spirited controversy between competing traditions is often an important component of progess (Laudan, 1977). Rapprochement has a purpose when alternative theoretical traditions have reached a point when each confronts serious shortcomings that can best be overcome by incorporating alternative perspectives. In this paper I try to show that this is the situation that exists in experimental psychology and cognitve science generally with respect to the three traditions enumerated above. I first explore how cognitive inquiry directed at internal procedures for processing information could benefit from a detailed study of the context of cognition, including insights provided by the Gibsonian tradition. Second, I examine the current controversy between symbolic and connectionist approaches and address the question of what contributions each offers to the other. Finally, I offer a framework in which multiple levels of inquiry in cognitve science can be related.     

Online webcam-based eye tracking in cognitive science: A first look

Online experimentation is emerging in many areas of cognitive psychology as a viable alternative or supplement to classical in-lab experimentation. While performance- and reaction-time-based paradigms are covered in recent studies, one instrument of cognitive psychology has not received much attention up to now: eye tracking. In this study, we used JavaScript-based eye tracking algorithms recently made available by Papoutsaki et al. (International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 2016) together with consumer-grade webcams to investigate the potential of online eye tracking to benefit from the common advantages of online data conduction. We compared three in-lab conducted tasks (fixation, pursuit, and free viewing) with online-acquired data to analyze the spatial precision in the first two, and replicability of well-known gazing patterns in the third task. Our results indicate that in-lab data exhibit an offset of about 172 px (15% of screen size, 3.94° visual angle) in the fixation task, while online data is slightly less accurate (18% of screen size, 207 px), and shows higher variance. The same results were found for the pursuit task with a constant offset during the stimulus movement (211 px in-lab, 216 px online). In the free-viewing task, we were able to replicate the high attention attribution to eyes (28.25%) compared to other key regions like the nose (9.71%) and mouth (4.00%). Overall, we found web technology-based eye tracking to be suitable for all three tasks and are confident that the required hard- and software will be improved continuously for even more sophisticated experimental paradigms in all of cognitive psychology.     

Collaborative recall and collective memory: what happens when we remember together?

Studies of collective memory have traditionally been the domain of philosophers and sociologists, while cognitive psychologists have largely investigated memory at the level of the individual. However, within cognitive psychology there is a variety of psychological theories and experimental paradigms that have been used to study the process and outcomes of remembering in groups. In this paper we review the research on group remembering and draw together findings from different traditions. In doing so, we aim to answer a series of questions about the outcomes and consequences of recalling in groups, and the particular features of groups and of memories that may be conducive to the formation of a collective memory. In clarifying what we know and what is yet to be studied about group memory, we point the way forward for a cognitive psychological study of collective memory.     

Piaget and Vygotsky Revisited: Dialogue or Assimilation?

In response to suggestions for merging Piagetian and Vygotskian psychology on the basis of their apparent similarity (e.g., Glassman, 1994), it is argued that numerous differences between the two paradigms constitute fundamental principled disagreements, and that these ought not to be minimized or simplified. Some fundamental differences involve underlying philosophy, social influences on development, the nature of the developmental process itself, developmental stages, and universality of cognitive structures. It is argued that a project of combining Piagetian and Vygotskian psychology would be premature at best, and that continued dialogue between these two distinct perspectives would be of greater value.     

THE epistemologies of parsimony: A review of Ockham's razors: A user's manual by Elliott Sober

Sober analyzes two paradigms of parsimony that have been used successfully in science. These are associated with two interpretations of probability: Bayesian and frequentist. Sober applies these paradigms to problems in biology, psychology, and philosophy. In the chapter on psychology, he argues that objective data consisting of environmental input and two or more concurrent responses could be used to refute empirically the radical behaviorist thesis that probability of learned responses can be accounted for solely on the basis of environmental variables. Sober believes that such data are readily available and offers a thought experiment to illustrate his point. Behavior analysts, however, would want actual experimental data, undoubtedly with animals, before accepting any such refutation. Nonetheless, Sober's philosophical point about the type of experiment that would be capable of refuting this thesis is valid. The behavior analytic program, however, does not depend upon the truth of this thesis.     

Integrating cognitive psychology, neurology and neuroimaging

In the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase in research effectively integrating cognitive psychology, functional neuroimaging, and behavioral neurology. This new work is typically conducting basic research into aspects of the human mind and brain. The present review features as examples of such integrations two series of studies by the author and his colleagues. One series, employing object recognition, mental motor imagery, and mental rotation paradigms, clarifies the nature of a cognitive process, imagined spatial transformations used in shape recognition. Among other implications, it suggests that when recognizing a hand's handedness, imagining one's body movement depends on cerebrally lateralized sensory-motor structures and deciding upon handedness depends on exact match shape confirmation. The other series, using cutaneous, tactile, and auditory pitch discrimination paradigms, elucidates the function of a brain structure, the cerebellum. It suggests that the cerebellum has non-motor sensory support functions upon which optimally fine sensory discriminations depend. In addition, six key issues for this integrative approach are reviewed. These include arguments for the value and greater use of: rigorous quantitative meta-analyses of neuroimaging studies; stereotactic coordinate-based data, as opposed to surface landmark-based data; standardized vocabularies capturing the elementary component operations of cognitive and behavioral tasks; functional hypotheses about brain areas that are consistent with underlying microcircuitry; an awareness that not all brain areas implicated by neuroimaging or neurology are necessarily directly involved in the associated cognitive or behavioral task; and systematic approaches to integrations of this kind.     

Internal versus external attention in social anxiety: an investigation using a novel paradigm

Several cognitive models propose that social anxiety is associated with increased self-focused attention. Indirect evidence for this hypothesis has been provided by questionnaire studies, and by cognitive psychology paradigms that have demonstrated reduced processing of external information during feared social-evaluative situations. However, no studies have simultaneously measured on-line attention to internal and external events. A probe detection task that aimed to measure the balance of attention between internal and external stimuli was developed. High and low socially anxious individuals were instructed to detect two probes. The external probe was superimposed on pictures of faces (happy, neutral, angry) or household objects that were presented on a VDU. The 'internal' probe was a pulse to the finger which participants were led to believe represented significant changes in their physiology. Compared to low speech anxious individuals, high speech anxious individuals showed an internal attentional bias, that was specific to conditions of social-evaluative threat.     

Re-emerging conceptual integration: commentary on Berkowitz's "on the consideration of automatic as well as controlled psychological processes in aggression"

In recent decades, researchers in various areas of psychology have challenged the claims of a single mode of information processing, and developed dual-process models of social behaviors. Although these theories differ on a number of dimensions, they all share the basic assumption that two different modes of information processing operate in making decision and copying behavior. In essence, the common distinction in these perspectives is between controlled vs. automatic, conscious vs. unconscious, and affective vs. cognitive modes of processing. The purpose of Berkowitz's article is to go beyond the notion of automatic processes in order to use classic notions of conditioning and displacement to explain aggressive behavior. I assert that an explanatory framework for psychology of aggression must be anchored not only in the new but also classic theoretical paradigms. However, progress in psychology does not rest solely on the accumulation of theoretical insights. It demands a large body of empirical facts, with attention to incongruities, discordances, and conceptual clarifications.