The difference isn't black and white: stereotype threat and the race gap on Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices

This study addresses recent criticisms aimed at the interpretation of stereotype threat research and methodological weaknesses of previous studies that have examined race differences on Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). African American and White undergraduates completed the APM under three conditions. In two threat conditions, participants received either standard APM instructions (standard threat) or were told that the APM was an IQ test (high threat). In a low threat condition, participants were told that the APM was a set of puzzles and that the researchers wanted their opinions of them. Results supported the stereotype threat interpretation of race differences in cognitive ability test scores. Although African American participants underperformed Whites under both standard and high threat instructions, they performed just as well as Whites did under low threat instructions.     

Does memory contaminate test-retest reliability?

The Wonderlic Personnel Test (1983) was administered twice over a 3-week period under conditions in which the activity of the second test was experimentally manipulated. Data from 302 undergraduates were analyzed. The standard test-retest reliability coefficient, .872, was not significantly different from the coefficients obtained from three other groups that, on the second test, were each given specific instructions: (a) to reason out the answers (pure reassess condition); (b) to use reasoning, memory of their initial responses, or both (reassess and memory); or (c) to take an alternate form of the test (parallel). However, the standard test-retest reliability coefficient was higher, p less than .10, than the coefficient obtained from a condition (pure memory) in which subjects were instructed to duplicate their previous responses, using only memory. Although the subjects in the test-retest and combined reassess and memory conditions reported recalling previous answers for 20-25% of the items on the second test, it was concluded that conscious repetition of specific responses did not seriously inflate the estimate of test-retest reliability.     

Re-examining the effects of verbal instructional type on early stage motor learning

The present study investigated the differential effects of analogy and explicit instructions on early stage motor learning and movement in a modified high jump task. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: analogy, explicit light (reduced informational load), or traditional explicit (large informational load). During the two-day learning phase, participants learned a novel high jump technique based on the ‘scissors’ style using the instructions for their respective conditions. For the single-day testing phase, participants completed both a retention test and task-relevant pressure test, the latter of which featured a rising high-jump-bar pressure manipulation. Although analogy learners demonstrated slightly more efficient technique and reported fewer technical rules on average, the differences between the conditions were not statistically significant. There were, however, significant differences in joint variability with respect to instructional type, as variability was lowest for the analogy condition during both the learning and testing phases, and as a function of block, as joint variability decreased for all conditions during the learning phase. Findings suggest that reducing the informational volume of explicit instructions may mitigate the deleterious effects on performance previously associated with explicit learning in the literature.     

Recognition and recall by children and adults as a function of variations in memory encoding instructions

In four experiments Ss were instructed to learn a set of 40 words by producing implicit associative responses to each item (association instructions), by repeating items over and over (repetition instruction), or by using their own devices (neutral instructions). Experiment I showed that recognition memory (RM) accuracy was greatest under association instructions for adults and children and least under repetition instructions for children. The implications of these results for a frequency theory analysis for RM were discussed. Experiments II, III, and IV examined free recall (FR) as a function of encoding instructions at short (1 min) and long (either 90 min or 24 h) retention intervals. FR was worst under repetition instructions, with little overall difference between the association and neutral conditions. However, in Experiments III and IV, using school children, the neutral condition exceeded the others in FR after 90 min but not after 1 min.     

Input- and output-monitoring in implicit and explicit memory

Previous experiments have shown that the procedure of questioning subjects retrospectively about the input and output status of information (input and output monitoring) is a useful method for assessing the awareness states of subjects during implicit and explicit memory tasks. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the previous findings could be extended to other implicit and explicit memory tasks. We were especially interested in whether differences in input- and output-monitoring performance can be observed when both the implicit and explicit memory tasks are conceptual ones. In a final test phase, the target items from the study phase and new distractor items were presented. In a recognition-like situation, subjects had to decide whether an item had been presented in the study phase (input status), as well as whether they had produced the item in the memory-test phase (output status). In all three experiments judgments about the input status - but only for those items that had been produced in the implicit or in the explicit memory test - were more precise after explicit than after implicit memory testings. This finding was not influenced by the distinction between perceptual and conceptual-memory tasks (Exp. 1), and was obtained under conditions in which the implicit and the explicit memory tasks were both conceptual and differed only in test instructions (Exps. 2 and 3). These results suggest that not only subjects performing a perceptual test of implicit memory, but also subjects in a conceptual implicit test were less aware of using information from a previous study episode than subjects who received memory instructions. It is concluded that requiring judgments about the input status of information is a good method for assessing subjects test awareness and is preferable to the use of a questionnaire (Exp. 3). In contrast, in all three experiments no differences were found with the output-monitoring measure between implicit and explicit test conditions.     

Effect of Altered Instructions on the MMPI-2 Profiles of College Students Who Are Not Motivated to Distort Their Responses

Research has shown that when the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) is administered with instructions designed to make people aware of the validity indexes and when people are encouraged to respond honestly rather than invalidate the test through defensiveness, their scores on validity scales suggest a more candid responding. Before such modified administration procedures can be broadly used to increase the validity of the MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) profiles, it is necessary to have more information about the effect of the altered instructions on test performance of people in general. This study involved administering the MMPI-2 to a group of 218 "normals" (college students) with instructions that differed from traditional instructions. Specifically, the test instructions were altered to explain more about the test and the presence of validity scales to apprise participants that disingenuous responding can be detected. The responses of college students taking the test under altered instructions were compared with those of a similar sample of 150 college students who took the test under standard instructions. Although under altered conditions there was a statistically significant tendency for measures assessing defensiveness (L, K, and S) to be lower for some participants (women but not men), the differences were trivial. Modified instructions made little practical difference in test performance when people who were not motivated to deceive on the test were informed of the presence of validity checks on the test.     

Effect of altered instructions on the MMPI-2 profiles of college students who are not motivated to distort their responses

Research has shown that when the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) is administered with instructions designed to make people aware of the validity indexes and when people are encouraged to respond honestly rather than invalidate the test through defensiveness, their scores on validity scales suggest a more candid responding. Before such modified administration procedures can be broadly used to increase the validity of the MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) profiles, it is necessary to have more information about the effect of the altered instructions on test performance of people in general. This study involved administering the MMPI-2 to a group of 218 "normals" (college students) with instructions that differed from traditional instructions. Specifically, the test instructions were altered to explain more about the test and the presence of validity scales to apprise participants that disingenuous responding can be detected. The responses of college students taking the test under altered instructions were compared with those of a similar sample of 150 college students who took the test under standard instructions. Although under altered conditions there was a statistically significant tendency for measures assessing defensiveness (L, K, and S) to be lower for some participants (women but not men), the differences were trivial. Modified instructions made little practical difference in test performance when people who were not motivated to deceive on the test were informed of the presence of validity checks on the test.     

多维Rasch模型在维度分数报告中的应用—对带宽-保真度困境的解决

分别采用四维度和十五维度Rasch模型分析包含项目内多维度结构的科学测验数据,估计两种维度结构下维度分数的信度.结果表明,对比相应的单维模型而言,四维度与十五维度Rasch模型均能够极大提高各内容维度上分数估计的信度.四维度与十五维度Rasch模型拟合结果的比较表明,对于总长度固定的测验,维度数目的增加能够补偿子维度长度减少引起的信度损失.但是这一作用必须以维度间较高的相关性为前提.     

Age-related differences in guessing on free and forced recall tests

This study examined possible age-related differences in recall, guessing, and metacognition on free recall tests and forced recall tests. Participants studied categorised and unrelated word lists and were asked to recall the items under one of the following test conditions: standard free recall, free recall with a penalty for guessing, free recall with no penalty for guessing, or forced recall. The results demonstrated interesting age differences regarding the impact of liberal test instructions (i.e., forced recall and no penalty) relative to more conservative test instructions (i.e., standard free recall and penalty) on memory performance. Specifically, once guessing was controlled, younger adults' recall of categorised lists varied in accordance with test instructions while older adults' recall of categorised lists did not differ between conservative and liberal test instructions, presumably because older adults approach standard free recall tests of categorised lists with a greater propensity towards guessing than young adults.     

Age-related differences in guessing on free and forced recall tests

This study examined possible age-related differences in recall, guessing, and metacognition on free recall tests and forced recall tests. Participants studied categorised and unrelated word lists and were asked to recall the items under one of the following test conditions: standard free recall, free recall with a penalty for guessing, free recall with no penalty for guessing, or forced recall. The results demonstrated interesting age differences regarding the impact of liberal test instructions (i.e., forced recall and no penalty) relative to more conservative test instructions (i.e., standard free recall and penalty) on memory performance. Specifically, once guessing was controlled, younger adults’ recall of categorised lists varied in accordance with test instructions while older adults’ recall of categorised lists did not differ between conservative and liberal test instructions, presumably because older adults approach standard free recall tests of categorised lists with a greater propensity towards guessing than young adults.     

Be Careful What You Ask For: Effects of Response Instructions on the Construct Validity and Reliability of Situational Judgment Tests

The aim of this study was to examine how six different types of situational judgment test (SJT) instructions, used frequently in practice, influence the psychometric characteristics of SJTs. The six SJT versions used the exact same items and differed only in their instructions; these versions were administered in two phases. Phase I was a between–subjects design (n= 486) that had participants complete one version of the SJTs. Phase II was a within–subjects design (n= 231) held several weeks later that had participants complete all six versions of the SJTs. Further, 146 of these individuals completed both phases, allowing for an assessment of test–retest reliability. A variety of objective and subjective criteria were collected, including self and peer ratings. Results indicated that instructions had a large effect on SJT responses, reliability, and validity. In general, instructions asking what one ‘would do’ showed more favorable characteristics than those that asked what one ‘should do’. Correlations between these two types were relatively low despite the fact that the same items were used, and criterion–related validities differed substantially in favor of the ‘would do’ instructions. Overall, this study finds that researchers and practitioners must give careful consideration to the types of SJT instructions used; failing to do so could influence criterion–related validity and cloud inferences of construct validity.     

Exploring fantasies of TAT reliability

It has been argued that low TAT stability estimates are an artifact of retest instructions to be original and creative. This view was supported in a recent study by Winter and Stewart (1977) who found that test-retest reliability was higher when subjects were told on the second occasion to write the same stories than when they were told to write different stories. This study attempted to replicate Winter and Stewart's results and also to determine whether the similarity of stories did vary as hypothesized. The replication was only partially successful. More importantly, it was concluded that while instructions to write similar stories did improve reliability, the increase reflected only subjects' memory capabilities and not greater stability in motive expression. While true TAT stability may still be commonly underestimated, altering retest instructions to improve reliability does not appear to be the solution.     

应用Rasch模型测试和分析儿童入学准备状态

本研究的目的在于应用Rasch模型编制和分析数学入学准备测验,从而分析Rasch模型的有效性和优势。自编数学入学准备测试,对150名平均年龄为6.6岁的儿童进行测查,应用Rasch模型对题目和评分等级做出修正并分析结果。结果表明修正后的测试具有较好的信效度,较好地拟合了Rasch模型,评分等级设置合理,测试的整体难度相对较低。儿童的Rasch分数和性别无关,但受到年龄、家庭社会经济地位的影响。相对于经典测量理论而言,应用Rasch模型进行入学准备测试的编制和分析具有优势。     

Construction of a depression scale with the Rasch model

This study examines the psychometric properties of a depression questionnaire. The goal was to improve the technical quality of traditional measures of depression in Spanish youth. 310 participants, aged 18-24 years, filled in the self-report questionnaire. The data were analyzed by means of the Rasch model. Results show that model fit, average item reliability (.97), and average person reliability (.88) are high. After deleting four indicators showing misfit and 12 showing sex bias, the resulting scale measures clinical depression objectively. Using this scale, the expected sex-related differences are found.     

主观评分中多面Rasch模型的应用

主观评分中存在的不一致性导致主观评分的信度降低。多面Rasch模型基于项目反应理论,可以应用于评分员效应的识别和消除,从而提高主观评分的信度。该文介绍多面Rasch模型的理论和应用框架,介绍了国外相关的典型应用,并且讨论了该模型的应用条件。     

Schema anticipation in recall: memory process or report strategy?

Summary This article reports an experimental investigation testing the hypothesis that recall reports are systematically biased by the recaller's knowledge about who is to receive the recall report, while that bias is absent from a recognition test. Subjects listened to one of two versions of a story recounting John's visit to the doctor. After the story was read, subjects were asked to recall the story either with standard-recall instructions or with instructions to recall for peers, for Martians, or for a contest. In a fifth condition, subjects performed a filler activity, viz., the recall of a personal experience. After the recall test subjects were administered a recognition test. Between the groups no systematic differences in memory performance were observed in the recognition test. Recall for peers appeared to be poorer than recall in the other conditions. Subjects in the recall for a contest condition scored higher than the subjects in the other groups. Not only did groups differ with respect to bias, but there were also systematic differences in the memory or discrimination scores. The findings are discussed within the framework of schema theory.     

Social Desirability and Attitudes Toward the Disabled

This study explored the influence of social desirability (SD) on responses of non-handicapped persons to three attitude-toward-disability scales under conditions that varied the personally evaluative nature of the testing situation. The design of the study was based on an adaptation-level model. 280 undergraduates were divided into 3 experimental groups. All were administered the SD scale. Each group was then exposed to one of 3 sets of instructions that varied the emphasis on personal evaluation. Subjects were then administered 3 attitude-toward-disability scales that differed in degree of test structure. Results indicate that those who had high SD needs responded with significantly more positive attitudes toward the disabled on each of the attitude scales. Variations in test instructions were effective in modifying responses of high SD subjects on two of the scales.     

Event frequency and children's suggestibility: a study of cued recall responses

Research examining the effect of repeated experience on children's suggestibility for particular kinds of information has produced differing results. In one study, responses to recognition questions revealed heightened suggestibility for variable details in children who repeatedly experienced an event compared to children who experienced an event once. In other studies, no such effect was found with cued recall. In this study, 4–5‐year old children engaged in one or four play sessions. Children were later given a biasing interview wherein half of the details were incorrectly represented. Children were then given a final memory test using free and cued recall prompts that was preceded by one of three instruction types: no special instructions, moderate instructions, or opposition instructions. Children in the repeated‐event condition were more suggestible than those in the single‐event condition, regardless of instructions. No significant differences in suggestibility were found across instructions conditions. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of Different Instructions on Consistency of Personality Inventory Responses

A novel feature of the Edwards Personality Inventory (EPI) is that the S responds to the items as he believes those who know him best would answer if asked to describe him. This study tested Edwards' hypothesis that reliability would be higher for these instructions vs. the more conventional ones to describe yourself directly as you see yourself. 180 Ss were tested with approximately one-third in each of three conditions: Booklet IA (test-retest), Booklet IB (test-retest), and Booklets IA and IB (alternate forms reliability). Within each condition, approximately half responded under Edwards' novel instructions, and half responded under conventional instructions. Directly contrary to Edwards' prediction, it was found that the proportion of conventional instruction correlations which were higher than the corresponding Edwards' instruction correlations was significantly greater than chance (p <.01).