Physiological,Cognitive, and Nonverbal Responses to Repeated Exposure to Crowding1

The present study testcd the hypotheses that crowded subjects would evidence higher levels of arousal than uncrowded subjects and that the arousal of crowded subjects would not habituate with the passage of time. In a laboratory setting, subjects were exposed three tinies over a 3-week period to either crowding with physical contact or an uncrowded environment. A high degree of convergence in support of the experimental hypotheses was provided by behavioral, physiological, and self-report measures. Crowded subjects were more physiologically aroused; rated by confederates to be more tense, uncomfortable, and annoyed; and reported more negative affect than uncrowded subjects. No evidence for habituation of. response to crowding was found.     

社会拥挤对消费者感官刺激偏好的影响及机制研究

本研究通过1个田野实验和2个实验室实验探讨了社会拥挤对消费者感官刺激偏好的影响及内在机制。相比于不拥挤,社会拥挤会增加消费者对强(vs.弱)感官刺激的偏好(实验1),这一效应受感知控制缺失驱动(实验2)。权力感对社会拥挤与消费者感官刺激偏好的关系起到调节作用(实验3),即当个体的权力感较高时,社会拥挤对强感官刺激偏好的促进作用才成立;反之,这种效应便会消失。     

Semantic priming from crowded words

Vision in a cluttered scene is extremely inefficient. This damaging effect of clutter, known as crowding, affects many aspects of visual processing (e.g., reading speed). We examined observers' processing of crowded targets in a lexical decision task, using single-character Chinese words that are compact but carry semantic meaning. Despite being unrecognizable and indistinguishable from matched nonwords, crowded prime words still generated robust semantic-priming effects on lexical decisions for test words presented in isolation. Indeed, the semantic-priming effect of crowded primes was similar to that of uncrowded primes. These findings show that the meanings of words survive crowding even when the identities of the words do not, suggesting that crowding does not prevent semantic activation, a process that may have evolved in the context of a cluttered visual environment.     

Chronic stress as a factor in physiologic reactivity to challenge

This study examined the hypothesis that chronic stress contributes to heightened cardiovascular reactivity. Chronic stress was operationalized as crowding stress associated with commercial-residential mixes in high-density neighborhoods. Seventeen residents of crowded neighborhoods and 24 residents of uncrowded neighborhoods worked on a challenging task while blood pressure and heart rate were measured. Self-report and biochemical measures indicated that the two groups differed in level of chronic stress. Results also indicated that chronic stress contributes to cardiovascular reactivity. Crowded residents showed greater increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate and took longer to return to baseline than did uncrowded residents. The few differences found between Type A and Type B residents were found only in the low-stress group.     

Behavioral and Physiological Consequences of Crowding in Humans1

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of crowding on human performance. Results generally supported the hypothesis that crowding acts as a stressor which may be mediated by overarousal. Moderate decrements in complex but not simple task performance were found for crowded subjects as compared to uncrowded controls. Poorer performance on a group cooperation task and less tolerance for frustration as an aftereffect of the crowded experience were reported. Crowded subjects in comparison to controls also exhibited significant elevations in blood pressure and pulse rate and manifested additional behavioral indices of stress, which included greater behavioral stereotypes, increased defensive postures, more remarks toward the door of the experimental room, and self reports of greater discomfort and hostility.     

拥挤感启动对威胁性表情识别知觉敏感性的影响

为了考察拥挤感启动对威胁性面部表情识别的影响,以28名大学生为被试,进行不同拥挤启动条件下的愤怒-中性和恐惧-中性表情识别任务。信号检测论分析发现,拥挤感启动降低了愤怒表情识别的辨别力,不影响其判断标准,也不影响恐惧表情识别的辨别力和判断标准;主观报告的愤怒表情强度在拥挤感启动条件下显著高于非拥挤条件,恐惧、中性表情强度则不受拥挤感启动的影响。结果表明,拥挤感启动使人们辨别愤怒表情的知觉敏感性下降。     

Effects of resource availability and importance of behavior on the experience of crowding.

According to the interference formulation, participants in a crowded setting will experience interference to the extent that behavioral goals conflict with environmental conditions. The importance of the behavioral goals directly affects not only the magnitude of the interference but also the mechanism by which people cope with interference. It was reasoned that important goals would induce a more active coping strategy in a crowded setting than in an uncrowded setting and would maintain task performance at the price of increasing crowding stress. When the behavioral goal is unimportant, decrements in task performance preclude a rise in stress. A laboratory study manipulated group size, in order to vary the availability of resources, and the importance of the task behavior. The predictions were confirmed, and partial confirmation was obtained for predictions involving the effects of the internal-external personality dimension. The meaning of the results is discussed in terms of other findings in the literature on crowding and the mediating role of the type of mechanism used to cope with interference.     

Interaction of sex and sex role in response to violations of preferred seating arrangements

Previous studies have indicated that men respond negatively to face-to-face invasion by strangers; females respond negatively to side-by-side invasion by strangers. In the first of two studies, men and women with an androgynous or traditional sex role were subjected to a face-to-face invasion by a same-sexed stranger. Men with a traditional sex role and women with an androgynous sex role felt more crowded (p<.05) than androgynous men and traditional women. Perceptions of crowding in these two groups were also accompanied by performance decrements as a result of the face-to-face invasion. In the second study, androgynous and traditional men and women were subjected to a side-by-side invasion. Women with a traditional sex role felt more crowded than all other groups (p<.05). There were no differences in perceptions of crowding among the other groups of subjects. Performance decrements were found only in women with a traditional orientation.     

Cognitions associated with anxiety and depression

The aim of the study was to examine whether cognitions associated with depression were different from those associated with anxiety. Sixty-four students and clerical staff completed the Beck Depression Inventory, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Cognitions Questionnaire. Those respondents whose depression scores were above the median were found to have significantly greater scores on one dimension of distortion (i.e. generalisation across situations) than respondents whose depression scores were below the median. There was also a general tendency for depression to be related to levels of overall cognitive distortion. The respondents whose trait anxiety scores were above the median did not show a significantly greater degree of overall cognitive distortion or generalisation across situations than those respondents whose anxiety scores were below the median.     

Basic-level visual similarity and category specificity

The role of visual crowding in category deficits has been widely discussed (e.g.,;; ). Most studies have measured overlap at the superordinate level (compare different examples of 'animal') rather than at the basic level (compare different examples of 'dog'). In this study, we therefore derived two measures of basic-level overlap for a range of categories. The first was a computational measure generated by a self-organising neural network trained to process pictures of living and non-living things; the second was a rating of perceived visual similarity generated by human subjects to the item names. The computational measure indicated that the pattern of crowded/uncrowded does not honour a living/non-living distinction. Nevertheless, different superordinates showed varied degrees of basic-level overlap, suggesting that specific token choice affects some superordinates more than others e.g., individual fruit and vegetable tokens show greater variability than any other items, while tools and vehicles produce more reliable or overlapping basic-level visual representations. Finally, subject ratings correlated significantly with the computational measures indicating that the neural model represents structural properties of the objects that are psychologically meaningful.     

Parental language and verbal responsiveness to children in crowded homes.

This article is a secondary data analysis of the University of Kansas Language Acquisition Project, which intensively studied, on a regular basis, parent and child language from age 6 months to 30 months. The association between residential density and parent-child speech was examined. Parents in crowded homes speak in less complex, sophisticated ways with their children compared with parents in uncrowded homes, and this association is mediated by parental responsiveness. Parents in more crowded homes are less verbally responsive to their children. This in turn accounts for their simpler, less sophisticated speech to their children. This mediational pathway is evident with statistical controls for socioeconomic status. This model may help explain prior findings showing a link between residential crowding and delayed cognitive development.     

Effects of Acute Experimental Crowding1

Recent concern with population growth has begun to stimulate interest in the effect of crowding on humans. This report presents a model of crowding based on the concept of normative expectations concerning appropriate interaction distances. A study of acute experimental crowding was then conducted. Contrary to findings of prior research, the present study found that crowding produced arousal. Subsequent social behavior, however, was mediated by different sex-specific group processes. In general, crowded male groups displayed a competitive, fragmented orientation, whereas crowded women formed cohesive, cooperative groups. Contrary to preliminary expectations, subjects were differentially effected by crowding based on their seating position in the crowded room.     

Effects of Bodily Contact on Reactions to Crowding1

The present study examined the effects of bodily contact in a crowded environment. Initially, the skin conductance levels (SCL) of 160 males and females were obtained during rest and while bursting a balloon. In a subsequent session, subjects in same-sex groups of four were seated for 30 minutes in either (a) a large room, (b) a small room subjected to unavoidable bodily contact, or (c) a small room which was partitioned to either reduce or prevent bodily contact while allowing visual access. Measures of mood, tolerance for frustration, cognitive task performance, and self reports of annoyance and somatic distress were then taken. Results showed that crowding is stressful and that bodily contact makes a significant contribution to the amount of stress experienced for both men and women. In general, crowded subjects forced to touch showed the greatest increases in SCL, felt most annoyed, were most bothered by spatial intrusion during crowding, and had the lowest tolerance for frustration following crowding. Sex differences in mood following crowding and in reaction to the noncrowded environment were observed and appeared to be mediated by differential social concerns.     

Effects of short-term crowding on aggression in captive groups of pigtail monkeys (macaca nemestrina)

Agonistic behaviors of 14 groups of pigtail monkeys were monitored under 2 spatial conditions, normal living space and half that amount of space. Aggression occurred less frequently in the crowded than in the relatively less crowded condition. The results of this study resemble those of some analogous research on human children, and they suggest that nonhuman primate models of crowding stress and aggression may be especially appropriate.     

Gender differences in the psychosocial correlates of suicidal ideation among adolescents.

Gender differences in the psychosocial correlates of suicidal ideation were studied. A sample of 613 high school students (ages 14-19) completed measures of suicidal ideation, depression, hopelessness, life stress, loneliness, alcohol and drug use, and reasons for living. The results of a discriminant function analysis indicated that males reported higher loneliness and substance abuse scores than females whereas females reported greater suicidal ideation, depression, and reasons for living. The results of multiple regression analyses found that, although the same four variables, depression, hopelessness, substance abuse, and few reasons for living emerged as significant predictors of suicidal ideation in both samples, the predictive equation accounted for more of the variance in ideation scores in females (57%) than in males (46%). In a final analysis a discriminant function analysis of the subscales of the reasons for living inventory revealed that females have a greater fear of death and injury whereas males have a greater fear of social disapproval over having suicidal thoughts. This may account for the greater rate of suicide completing among males. Fear of social disapproval, more anger and impulsivity, and less help-seeking behavior among males are offered as potential variables to explain the observed gender differences.     

Feminine sex role and depression in middle-aged women

The present study was designed to investigate the relationship of sex-role orientation and depression in middle-aged women. It was hypothesized that middle-aged females who were clinically depressed would score higher in feminine characteristics on the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) than similar women who were not depressed. The subjects were two groups of women between the ages of 35 and 50. The clinical group consisted of 15 women who were currently diagnosed as depressive and who were undergoing treatment for depression at three local mental health centers. The nonclinical group consisted of 24 women who were not currently seeking treatment for depression and who had never undergone psychiatric treatment or therapy. All subjects were administered the BSRI and Beck's Depression Inventory.Results supported the hypothesis that depression in middle-aged females is related to their degree of acceptance of the traditional feminine role. For all subjects, depression scores were positively correlated with femininity scores. It was concluded that the woman who subscribes to a traditional feminine role stereotype has a greater vulnerability to depression in her middle years.     

Variation in aggressive behavior and anatomo-physiological correlates generated by crowding without physical contact in the house mouse

Behavioral, physiological (i.e., endocrine), and anatomical consequences of crowding in mice were studied in a situation where animals were in auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile contact but restrained from full physical interactions, to prevent overt aggression. Males that cohabited with females undisturbed by neighboring conspecifics showed greater propensity to attack same-sex intruders and had higher plasma testosterone levels than did their “crowded” counterparts, that is, males cohabiting with females and housed adjacent to other male/female pairs. In this respect, the latter animals resembled submissive males. However, a significant increase in weight of androgen-dependent target organs (i.e., seminal vesicles and preputial glands) was found in crowded males. These data indicate that despite the observed inhibition of social aggression these males are not physiologically comparable (homologous) to male mice that experienced defeat and the stress of submission during fighting. The intriguing possibility that different conversion pathway of testosterone are accelerated, as a result of social communication, in males living in these two environments and the behavioral implications of these possibilities are discussed. Finally, the parental behavior of crowded animals, although not freely interacting with each other, was disrupted, causing a marked decrease in reproductive success. In this situation a high incidence of infanticide of their offspring by both parents was observed, whereas this behavior was virtually absent in non-crowded male/female pairs.     

Sociodemographic characteristics and drinking status as predictors of older women's health.

As part of a U.S. national survey of women's drinking and life experiences, the authors used responses from a subsample (n = 245) of women aged 55-90 years (M = 65.8 years) to examine the relationship of sociodemographic characteristics (income, marital status, and occupational status) and drinking status to several health outcomes (self-perceived general health, depression, sexual satisfaction, and sexual dysfunction). In all analyses, the authors controlled for respondent age. Results indicated that higher household income predicted greater lifetime and current sexual satisfaction with a partner as well as higher general health ratings. Women drinkers also reported better general health than did abstainers. An interaction between marital status (married or cohabitating vs. nonmarried) and employment status (employed vs. nonemployed) was a predictor of general health ratings. The authors found significant contrasts among the 4 groups when they controlled for age, income, and drinking status: (a) Among the employed respondents, the nonmarried women reported better general health than did the married women; and (b) among nonmarried respondents, the employed women reported better general health than did the nonemployed women.     

Factors associated with depressed mood among adolescents in Northern Ireland

This paper presents data on the pattern of self‐reported depressed mood among a sample of 887 11–15 year‐old secondary school students living in Northern Ireland. In addition, the paper examines the association between depressed mood and stressful life events, family support and perceived control. Analysis of variance of mean depression scores did not reveal main or interaction effects for age (school year) or sex. However, a school year×sex interaction effect was found when the variation in depression scores due to family cohesiveness (or support) was partialled out in an ANCOVA. In years 1 and 2, males reported higher mean depression scores than females, whereas the pattern was reversed in years 3 and 4. The co‐variates of stressful life events and perceived control did not significantly affect the pattern of mean depression scores. This would tend to suggest that the sex difference in depression found consistently with adults may begin to emerge in middle adolescence; and that the nature and level of family relationships may influence the prevalence and pattern of adolescent depression. The study found a higher mean depression score and a larger proportion of ‘cases’ (27%) than has been recorded in studies of young adolescents living outside Northern Ireland. However, the extent to which higher levels of symptomatology may be related to the politically unsettled nature of Northern Irish society is unclear. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mediational models of spirituality and depressive symptomatology among HIV-positive Puerto Rican women

A survey of 142 Puerto Rican women living with HIV/AIDS in New York City revealed high Centers for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scores, with 66% of the sample scoring above the conventional threshold of possible clinical depression. Most respondents (71%) were Catholic, 29% considered themselves members of a church or other place of worship, and 30% reported attending religious services 1-3 times a month. As predicted, spirituality was high and negatively associated with CES-D scores. A series of simultaneous multiple regression analyses controlling for all potentially confounding medical and sociodemographic variables demonstrated that both mastery and self-esteem scores mediated this relationship. Implications for future research and the provision of services to HIV-positive Puerto Rican women are discussed.