An Utility Based Framework for Evaluating the Financial Impact of Sales Force Training Programs

Limited attention has been devoted to the financial evaluation of sales training programs. In response to this shortcoming, this research proposes a sales training evaluation framework that integrates economic utility theory with Kirkpatrick's (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) four-level training evaluation model. The proposed utility theory framework is tested using data derived from a sales training program conducted in Egypt. After performing the economic evaluation, sensitivity analysis is employed to demonstrate the financial trends of varying key training program variables. The paper concludes with discussions of theoretical and managerial implications, research limitations, and recommendations for future research.     

A META-ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONS AMONG TRAINING CRITERIA

An augmented framework for training criteria based on Kirkpatrick's (1959a, 1959b, 1960a, 1960b) model divides training reactions into affective and utility reactions, and learning into post-training measures of learning, retention, and behavior/skill demonstration. A total of 34 studies yielding 115 correlations were analyzed meta-analytically. Results included substantial reliabilities across training criteria and reasonable convergence among subdivisions of criteria within a larger level. Utility-type reaction measures were more strongly related to learning or on-the-job performance (transfer) than affective-type reaction measures. Moreover, utility-type reaction measures were stronger correlates of transfer than were measures of immediate or retained learning. These latter findings support recent concurrent thinking regarding use of reactions in training (e.g., Warr & Bunce, 1995). Implications for choosing and developing training criteria are discussed.     

Investigating Interrelationships among Sales Training Evaluation Methods

Today numerous training options are available to sales organizations, and sales training teams use various means to report training effectiveness. This study utilizes Kirkpatrick’s (1959; 1960) training evaluation model and examines the interrelationships among its four levels of sales training evaluation (i.e., reactions, knowledge acquisition, behavior change, and organizational outcomes). Empirical results indicate that sales trainees’ use of training materials at work is positively related to achieving sales training outcomes, including improving (1) organizational commitment, (2) sales effectiveness, and (3) customer relations. Furthermore, trainees who had positive reactions to training were more likely to learn the material, and trainees with higher levels of knowledge retention were more likely to apply the material in the work environment. Implications are discussed that may aid sales firms to better evaluate training solutions provided by vendors and to develop more effective and accountable sales training efforts.     

Repairing the reticulated model of scientific rationality

InScience and Values (1984) and other, more recent, works, e.g. (1987a, 1987b, 1989a, 1989b, 1990), Larry Laudan proposes a theory of scientific debate he dubs the reticulated model of scientific rationality (Laudan, 1984, pp. 50–66). The model stands in sharp contrast to hierarchical approaches to rationality exemplified by Popper (1959), Hempel (1965), and Reichenbach (1938), as well as the conventionalist views of rationality defended by Carnap (1950), Popper (1959), Kuhn (1962), and Lakatos (1978). Ironically, the model commits some of the same errors Laudan finds in hierarchicalist and conventionalists approaches to scientific rationality. This paper will show that the model can be fixed by recognizing that criteria of goal assessment have no privileged status. These rules are best viewed as simply rules of rationality (or rules of scientific method) by another name.     

EXPECTATIONS OF BEHAVIORALLY ANCHORED RATING SCALES

Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) are reviewed from two perspectives. First, the particular BARS methodology is assessed on the basis of its fulfilling three broad categories of "criteria for criteria:" (1) utilization criteria, (2) qualitative criteria, and (3) quantitative or psychometric criteria. These three broad categories are composed of 14 specific criteria by which performance evaluation methodologies can be assessed. The second perspective involves an evaluation of BARS in terms of psychometric criteria but with the literature broken down into studies concerned with (1) development of BARS, (2) utilization of BARS, (3) comparison of BARS to other methods, and (4) rater training in BARS use. Conclusions from these reviews indicate that BARS is no better or worse than other methods when assessed on a quantitative basis whereas it has greater potential when assessed on the utilization and qualitative criteria. Suggestions are offered for extending BARS research to process questions and to domains other than performance appraisal perse     

Training Appraisees to Participate in Appraisal: Effects on Appraisers and Appraisees

This study examined the role of behavior modeling training (BMT) in enhancing appraisee participation during a performance appraisal discussion. In addition, the study examined the effects of enhanced participation on appraisee and appraiser perceptions toward several appraisal outcome variables; in particular, the fairness and accuracy of performance appraisal were of interest. The experimental design was a 2 × 3 completely crossed factorial design consisting of two levels of training (behavior modeling vs. lecture/discussion) and three levels of bogus evaluation feedback (low, neutral, and high). A series of multivariate and univariate comparisons were used to test the hypothesized outcomes. The findings suggest that appraisers exposed to the BMT group perceived appraisees as more proactive and better performers and, in addition, reported liking the appraisees more, and perceiving the appraisal process as more fair. The study also found support for the egocentric bias in perceived outcome fairness: appraisees in both training conditions who received a high evaluation perceived the appraisal evaluation as more fair than appraisees who received a low evaluation. In addition, the study found that favorable evaluations were also perceived as being more accurate. The results of the study are discussed in terms of procedural justice theory and related research examining the role of performance feedback on both the appraisee and the appraiser. Suggestions for future research in the areas of behavior modeling, voice-giving (high-input) procedures, and procedural justice are discussed.     

Mental models and problem solving: Three challenges to a theory of restructuring and insight

The Gestalt psychologists' view of restructuring and the associated phenomenon of insight is discussed and related to findings in modern cognitive psychology. In line with Ohlsson (1984b) it is assumed that search in semantic memory is an indispensable part of restructuring. However, in contrast to Ohlsson's (1984b) information processing theory of restructuring and insight the present paper focuses on the role of mental models. It is asserted that the Gestalt approach to problem solving is compatible with the idea that a mental model is manipulated. The paper discusses three assumptions of restructuring and insight, all of which are related to mental models: (a) restructuring involves manipulating a mental model; (b) the experience of insight is based on "seeing" something in a mental model; (c) restructuring aims at realizing structural balance in a mental model. To assess the validity of these three assumptions is seen as a challenge to future research on human problem solving.     

Complexity science: A framework for psychotherapy integration

The paradigm of complexity science provides a new way to address the problem of psychotherapy integration and allows us to bypass the various shortcomings of the linear-interventionist perspective. Nine criteria are outlined, which should be satisfied by any integrative approach to psychotherapy: (a) the use of complexity science to provide a meta-theoretical and generic understanding of change processes (from neuronal to social system levels); (b) a comprehensive and formalised modelling of change processes and personality development; (c) an integrative method of case formulation; (d) the ability to understand a variety of techniques in terms of basic change principles; (e) criteria to guide microdecisions; (f) the application of data-driven feedback and real-time monitoring of change dynamics; (g) standardised assessment of outcomes in naturalistic settings; (h) guidelines for training; and (i) strategies that are well-suited to science–practice integration. Using these criteria as a framework for evaluation, one may grasp the potential of complexity science to drive innovation in the pursuit of psychotherapy integration.     

An evaluation of the effectiveness of Diploma-level training in cognitive behaviour therapy

Background

As part of the UK government’s initiative to Increase Access to Psychological Therapies (see http://www.iapt.nhs.uk/for full details of the IAPT programme) there has been an expansion in the provision of post-graduate Diploma training in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT). Previous evaluations of such training programmes have yielded mixed results but have been limited by small sample sizes and/or limited assessment measures.

Aims

To evaluate the impact of a long-standing Diploma in CBT training programme on a variety of measures of CBT competence.

Method

Trainees’ levels of CBT skill are compared at the beginning and end of CBT training. The effect of therapist factors such as age, professional background and gender on the development of CBT competence is also examined.

Results

Results show that trainees demonstrate higher levels of CBT skills after completing the training than they did before, with the majority achieving pre-determined criteria for competence. Trainees’ gender was not related to their performance but trainees’ age showed a negative association with CBT skill (older trainees performed worse). Trainees’ professional background also had an impact on their level of CBT competence, with trainees who were clinical psychologists demonstrating the highest levels of competence across a range of measures.

Conclusions

CBT Diploma training leads to increases in the level of trainees’ CBT competence, with the majority achieving the levels demonstrated in research trials by the end of training. Thus, this training is likely to lead to improved outcomes for patients. Further research is needed to determine the most efficient ways of enhancing CBT skills.     

A methodological assessment and evaluation of dual-task paradigms

This article outlines three major assumptions often implicitly made in dual-task experiments conducted to assess attentional capacity requirements of memorial processes. These assumptions are shown to be incorrect. Three criteria which should be met in dual-task experiments that draw inferences from secondary task decrements are proposed: (1) there should be resource trade-off with the secondary task sensitive to the resource demands of the primary task; (2) there should be equivalence of single and dual primary task performance; and (3) the secondary task must remain resource sensitive throughout the experiment. An experiment was carried out in which the primary and secondary tasks were designed according to these criteria. The results demonstrate that when the criteria are met then secondary task performance can be predictive of primary task difficulty: however, the experiment also highlights the fact that a simple assessment of capacity will not predict total task performance.     

We are, therefore they aren’t: Ingroup construal as a standard of comparison for outgroup judgments

Five studies tested the assumptions: (a) that ingroups are habitually used as a standard of comparison for outgroup judgments, and (b) that outgroup judgments are generally contrasted away from a momentary construal of the ingroup. Results generally support these assumptions. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated increased activation levels of ingroup knowledge as a result of corresponding outgroup judgments. Experiments 3 and 4 showed that outgroup judgments depend not only on cognitively accessible outgroup exemplars, but also on accessible ingroup exemplars. Finally, Experiment 5 demonstrated that the impact of accessible ingroup exemplars on outgroup judgments is mediated by changes in the construal of the ingroup, such that: (a) outgroups were judged lower with regard to a given trait the higher participants perceived their ingroup with regard to that trait, and (b) controlling for the effect of ingroup construal attenuated the obtained effects on outgroup judgments.     

Multicomponent theory of perception

Summary In a complete identification experiment the three sides of an equilateral triangle were briefly presented as stimuli either singly or in pairs. The resulting 6×6 confusion matrices obtained with three subjects were analyzed according to Rumelhart's (1970, 1971) multicomponent theory of perception (MCTP) in order to test assumptions about feature extraction and decision processes. In agreement with MCTP the detection of a line segment occurring within a pair was stochastically independent of the detection of the other line segment. Two predictions of MCTP were however not confirmed: different line segments are not detected with equal probability, and the probability of detecting a line segment depends on the presence or absence of others. Several decision assumptions of MCTP were tested. The results are the following: If at most one line segment has been detected, then several responses (the candidate set) are compatible with this sensory state. It was argued that response selection from the candidate set is better described by the choice model (Luce, 1959) than by the matching Bayesian rule assumed by MCTP. For a given sensory state the size of the candidate set appears to vary over trials, whereas MCTP assumes it to be constant. In general, the confusion matrices could be predicted quite accurately by MCTP modified according to the above assumptions. However, more accurate predictions were achieved by assuming holistic perceptual processes as well as single feature extraction.This study was supported by a grant from the Universität Konstanz, Forschungsprojekt 32/72 Visuelle Reize, and the experiment to this study was performed in the laboratory of the Arbeitseinheit Mathematische Psychologie im Fachbereich Psychologie/Soziologie der Universität Konstanz.     

Organization and learning of visual-motor information during different orders of limb movement: step, velocity, acceleration

Theoretical use of the tracking paradigm as a means of understanding perceptual-motor organization has been influenced by ambiguous assumptions concerning the relation of time orders of force production to the learning and performance of time orders of limb movement. This study provides both a conceptual framework for clarifying these assumptions, and empirical data for testing them. The independent variables were (a) target motion (step, velocity, acceleration); (b) stick loading (elasticity, damping, mass); and (c) practice. The dependent variables were absolute terror for step and time-integrated squared error for velocity and acceleration. The hypothesis was that proficiency of tracking is inversely related to mathematical complexity of reactive forces, within constraints imposed by familiarity with required types of transfer functions. Five subjects were assigned to track one type of target motion in each of the three loading conditions, respectively. Cursor-present "training" trials were alternated with cursor-absent "test" trials. Thereby, a premium was placed on attention to proprioceptive feedback, at least at the start of training. The hypothesis could not be rejected.     

An Empirical Evaluation of Training Using Multi-attribute Utility Analysis

Purpose

This paper aims to develop and apply a multi-attribute utility analysis model (MAU) to assess the benefits of HRM interventions as an alternative to the traditional utility analysis method.

Design/Methodology/Approach

MAU adopts a cost-benefit multi-variant approach to assess HRM efficiency using a non-monetary metric. The study employs a quasi-experimental design to examine the training effects on job performance, comparing pre- and post-intervention measures mostly from sub-groups of random sample of 367 trainees.

Findings

We showed that is feasible to adopt a multi-attribute evaluation approach in HRM area by adapting the MAUT technique. Our formal MAU model also demonstrated that it is possible to adopt a broader and more global evaluation approach than other more ??myopic?? models such as traditional UA models. Results after applying our MAU model in a real organization indicated considerable utility from training employees.

Implications

The commitment and involvement of the organization in the evaluation project seem to suggest an interest in comprehensive evaluative models for HRM such as MAU. Because the amount of information that MAU model entails, it may be also used as a strategic instrument for continuous improving of HR interventions and as a mechanism to analyze the evaluation policy of different stakeholders groups.

Originality/Value

We provide a theoretical development of a MAU model and offer its first empirical application in a firm to calculate the utility of training. This contributes to utility analysis research and provides a guide for practitioners evaluating HRM benefits.     

Enhancing the training integrity of human service staff using pyramidal behavioral skills training

This experiment used a pyramidal training model to evaluate the effects of behavioral skills training (BST), delivered in a 1-time group-training format, on the extent to which 25 human service staff implemented BST when training others how to implement behavioral procedures. Results indicated that (a) the training workshop increased BST integrity to mastery levels for the majority of participants with varying levels of education, organizational positions, and training experience, (b) the training effects generalized to teaching an untrained skill, and (c) high levels of BST integrity maintained at follow-up 4 to 6 weeks after training for all 3 participants with whom probes were conducted. Moreover, participants indicated high levels of satisfaction with both the training workshop and BST as a training procedure.     

A STUDY OF VARIABLES RELATED TO SELECTED JOB PLACEMENT CRITERIA

A random sample of 70 training program graduates from the Georgia Rehabilitation Center was used in the present study. Three placement criteria were as follows: 1) salary; 2) number of weeks between graduation and employment; and 3) number of contacts by a field rehabilitation counselor between graduation and closure. Data were collected on 55 test and rating variables during the students' evaluation and training periods, and intercorrelations were examined to determine significant relationships between these variables and the selected criteria. The results were discussed in terms of program implications.     

Parental socialization of child and adolescent physical activity: a meta-analysis.

Meta-analysis was used to integrate research on the relations between parental socialization behavior and child and adolescent physical activity (PA) levels. Four major databases were examined: PubMED, ERIC, Web of Science, and PsychLit (1960 -2005). Thirty studies met the following inclusion criteria: (a) child age (2-18 years) and (b) statistical information permitting calculation of an effect size between parent socialization behavior and child PA. Mean age of participants across studies ranged from 2.54 to 15.5 years. The unweighted mean and median effect sizes (as indexed by r) were .17 and .13, respectively, indicating that a moderate positive relation exists between parental support and modeling behavior and child and adolescent PA levels. The moderating effect of type of parental socialization behavior, population characteristics, and methodological factors were investigated. Theoretical and methodological implications concern the inclusion of mediated models of parental influence and the use of longitudinal investigations in determining causal direction. From an applied viewpoint, these results are useful for the design of future, more effective childhood obesity prevention programs by suggesting child-age-appropriate parental influences.     

Opening Scenarios: A Relational Perspective on How to Deal with Multiple Therapeutic Views

The aim of this work is to provide therapists with a conceptual outline to help them utilize theoretical and methodological perspectives from different psychotherapy models. More specifically, we will start with three basic assumptions from the social constructionist paradigm, particularly effective in bringing together different perspectives in therapy and providing therapists with useful criteria for selecting among them. The assumptions are as follows: (1) the psychological world of the individual is constructed within relational processes, mainly through dialogue; (2) in general, discourse can be classified as either generative or degenerative; and (3) individuals construct their life narratives based also on a common-sense that can derive from psychological theories developed within specific cultural traditions. These assumptions derive mainly from Gergen??s relational perspective (2009) and lead us to foresee a set of implications for clinical practice, where therapist and client are seen as ??multi-beings??, consequently endowed with multiple views, not one.     

The Excitation-Adaptation Model of Pediatric Chronic Illness

This article examines the value of the psychosomatic family model for the study of chronically ill children. Four conceptual problems arise in the discussion of this model: the unidirectional causality of the model; the function of the sick child for the family system; the pathology of the family characteristics; and the disease type. In the present study, we propose (a) that a distinction be made between uncontrolled and controlled forms of disease, and (b) that the family characteristics of "cohesion" and "adaptation" be examined in relation to the parental capacity for problem solving and the acceptance or rejection of the child by the parents. This is shown by means of empirical research. In this empirical study, 20 families with a child suffering from controlled asthma are compared with 20 families with a child suffering from uncontrolled asthma. Contrary to the assumptions derived from the psychosomatic family model, the results show significantly more cohesion and structure in the group with a child suffering from controlled asthma. The findings from this study are integrated in a new model for the study of chronic childhood illness —"the excitation-adaptation model." In this model, two circular processes are emphasized involving (a) the progress of the illness and the way in which parents and child deal with medication and medical advice (therapy compliance), and (b) the factors influencing the therapy compliance on the part of the parents, the family, and the child. By studying these factors in connection with the management of the illness, it should become clear whether family characteristics are adaptive or pathological.