Can learning potential in schizophrenia be assessed with the standard CVLT‐II? An exploratory study

This study examined the potential of using the regular administration of a common neuropsychological test, the CVLT-II, to assess learning potential in schizophrenia. Based on List A trial 1 performance and the learning slope, a schizophrenia sample was divided into three learning potential groups (non-learners, learners and high-achievers) that differed in the use of learning strategies. High-achievers utilized more semantic clustering than learners and non-learners, and non-learners were less consistent in words recalled than the other two groups. This standard administration approach is a promising, time-saving alternative to the modified tests of learning potential used so far.     

What causes specificity of practice in a manual aiming movement: vision dominance or transformation errors?

The withdrawal of vision of the arm during a manual aiming task has been found to result in a large increase in aiming error, regardless of the amount of practice in normal vision before its withdrawal. In the present study, the authors investigated whether the increase in error reflects the domination of visual afferent information over the movement representation developed during practice to the detriment of other sources of afferent information or whether it reflects only transformation errors of the location of the target from an allocentric to an egocentric frame of reference. Participants (N = 40) performed aiming movements with their dominant or nondominant arm in a full-vision or target- only condition. The results of the present experiment supported both of those hypotheses. The data indicated that practice does not eliminate the need for visual information for optimizing movement accuracy and that learning is specific to the source or sources of afferent information more likely to ensure optimal accuracy during practice. In addition, the results indicated that movement planning in an allocentric frame of reference might require simultaneous vision of the arm and the target. Finally, practice in a target-only condition, with knowledge of results, was found to improve recoding of the target in an egocentric frame of reference.     

Effects of Pointing Rate and Availability of Visual Feedback on Visual and Proprioceptive Components of Prism Adaptation

The withdrawal of vision of the arm during a manual aiming task has been found to result in a large increase in aiming error, regardless of the amount of practice in normal vision before its withdrawal. In the present study, the authors investigated whether the increase in error reflects the domination of visual afferent information over the movement representation developed during practice to the detriment of other sources of afferent information or whether it reflects only transformation errors of the location of the target from an allocentric to an egocentric frame of reference. Participants (N = 40) performed aiming movements with their dominant or nondominant arm in a full-vision or target-only condition. The results of the present experiment supported both of those hypotheses. The data indicated that practice does not eliminate the need for visual information for optimizing movement accuracy and that learning is specific to the source or sources of afferent information more likely to ensure optimal accuracy during practice. In addition, the results indicated that movement planning in an allocentric frame of reference might require simultaneous vision of the arm and the target. Finally, practice in a target-only condition, with knowledge of results, was found to improve recoding of the target in an egocentric frame of reference.     

Visual feedback,movement learning and the representation of movement

Two experiments on movement learning are reported where the orientation of a visual curve on a graphics terminal, defining a relatively complex arm movement, was either orthogonal to or compatible with the direction of the required movement. In addition, individual differences in spatial orientation and visualization abilities were correlated with motor performance. Results in both experiments showed that equivalent amounts of learning occurred in the two visual conditions. However, during transfer trials to the opposite condition, virtually no transfer occurred for the compatible group when they performed in the orthogonal condition whereas there was tranfer when the orthogonal group performed in the compatible condition. The results supported the idea that very early in learning the orthogonal orientation of visual curve promoted the development of an orientation processing stage which facilitated transrer performance of the orthogonal group. Integrating these results with the past literature on movement learning led to the notion that the orientation information processing stage can be considered a cognitive system that interacts with the image of the act. Finally, contrary to expectations, spatial orientation ability failed to account for any performance while spatial visualization ability moderately correlated with performance.     

Immediate early gene activation in hippocampus and dorsal striatum: effects of explicit place and response training

Evidence from lesion, electrophysiological, and neuroimaging studies support the hypothesis that the hippocampus and dorsal striatum process afferent inputs in such a way that each structure regulates expression of different behaviors in learning and memory. The present study sought to determine whether rats explicitly trained to perform one of two different learning strategies, spatial or response, would display disparate immediate early gene activation in hippocampus and striatum. c-Fos and Zif268 immunoreactivity (IR) was measured in both hippocampus and striatum 30 or 90 min following criterial performance on a standard plus-maze task (place learners) or a modified T-maze task (response learners). Place and response learning differentially affected c-Fos-IR in striatum but not hippocampus. Specifically, explicit response learning induced greater c-Fos-IR activation in two subregions of the dorsal striatum. This increased c-Fos-IR was dependent upon the number of trials performed prior to reaching behavioral criterion and accuracy of performance during post-testing probe trials. Quantification of Zif268-IR in both hippocampus and striatum failed to distinguish between place and response learners. The changes in c-Fos-IR occurred 30 min, but not 90 min, post-testing. The synthesis of c-Fos early in testing could reflect the recruitment of key structures in learning. Consequently, animals that were able to learn the response task efficiently displayed greater amounts of c-Fos-IR in dorsal striatum.     

Long-term consequences of early experience on adult avoidance learning in female rats: role of the dopaminergic system

Following our hypothesis that juvenile emotional and/or cognitive experience should affect learning performance at preweaning age as well as adulthood, the present study in female Wistar rats aimed to examine the impact of (i) avoidance training at preweaning age, (ii) exposure to repeated maternal separation, (iii) the combination of both, and (iv) the blockade of dopaminergic neurotransmission on adult two-way active avoidance learning in rats. We found that preweaning, i.e. three week old, rats were less capable of avoidance learning compared to adults. Our main findings revealed that preweaning avoidance training alone improved avoidance learning in adulthood. Furthermore, maternal separation alone also improved avoidance learning in preweaning and in adult rats, but this effect of maternal separation did not add up to the beneficial effect of preweaning avoidance training on adult learning. In addition, the pharmacological blockade of dopamine receptors during preweaning avoidance training via systemic application of haloperidol impaired preweaning avoidance performance in a dose-dependent manner. Testing the haloperidol-treated preweaning presumed "non-learners" as adults revealed that they still showed improved learning as adults. Taken together, our results strongly support the hypothesis that emotional as well as cognitive experience at preweaning age leaves an enduring "memory trace," which can facilitate learning in adulthood. Our pharmaco-behavioral studies suggest that unlike the adult brain, preweaning learning and memory formation is less dependent on dopaminergic mechanisms, which raises the intriguing question of possible alternative pathways.     

Sex-specific cognitive–behavioural profiles emerging from individual variation in numerosity discrimination in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gambusia affinis</Emphasis>

The relationship between an individual’s cognitive abilities and other behavioural attributes is complex, yet critical to understanding how individual differences in cognition arise. Here we use western mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, to investigate the relationship between individual associative learning performance in numerical discrimination tests and independent measures of activity, exploration, anxiety and sociability. We found extensive and highly repeatable inter-individual variation in learning performance (r = 0.89; ICC = 0.89). Males and females exhibited similar learning performance, yet differed in sociability, activity and their relationship between learning and anxiety/exploration tendencies. Sex-specific multivariate behaviour scores successfully predicted variation in individual learning performance, whereas combined sex analyses did not. Female multivariate behaviour scores significantly predict learning performance across females (ρ = 0.80, p = 0.005) with high-performing female learners differentiated from female non-learners and low-performing learners by significant contributions of activity and sociability measures. Meanwhile, males of different learning performance levels (high-, low- and non-learners) were distinguished from each other by unique behavioural loadings of sociability, activity and anxiety/exploration scores, respectively. Our data suggest that despite convergence on learning performance, the sexes diverge in cognitive–behavioural relationships that are likely products of different sexual selection pressures.     

Three-year-old children can access their own memory to guide responses on a visual matching task

Many models of learning rely on accessing internal knowledge states. Yet, although infants and young children are recognized to be proficient learners, the ability to act on metacognitive information is not thought to develop until early school years. In the experiments reported here, 3.5-year-olds demonstrated memory-monitoring skills by responding on a non-verbal task originally developed for non-human animals, in which they had to access their knowledge states. Children learned a set of paired associates, and were given the option to skip uncertain trials on a recognition memory test. Accuracy for accepted items was significantly higher than for skipped on a subsequent memory task that included all items. Additionally, children whose memory-monitoring assessments more closely matched actual memory performance showed superior overall learning, suggesting a correlation between memory-monitoring and memory itself. The results suggest that children may have implicit access to internal knowledge states at very young ages, providing an explanation for how they are able to guide learning, even as infants.     

A Comparison of Two References for Using Knowledge of Performance in a Motor Task

In the present study, the learning of a task in which the goal of the movement was not isomorphic with a specific movement pattern was examined. The subjects' (N = 48) goal in the task was to be both spatially and temporally accurate in reaching 4 targets with a right arm lever movement. After each acquisition trial, the displacement profile of the movement just produced was provided to all subjects as knowledge of performance (KP). The relative effectiveness of 2 possible references, with which subjects could compare the KP, was examined. One of the references examined was knowledge of results (KR), which was provided by reporting the total absolute timing and amplitude errors from the 4 targets. The other reference examined was a criterion template (CT), which was defined as the most efficient movement pattern for reaching the 4 targets. In the feedback display, CT was superimposed on the displacement profile of the movement just produced. A factorial design, in which 2 levels of KR (KR, no KR) were crossed with 2 levels of CT (CT, no CT), produced 4 feedback conditions. After 120 acquisition trials with feedback, immediate and delayed retention tests without feedback and a reacquisition test with KR (20 trials per test) were conducted. Acquisition results indicated that KR was a better reference than CT for per-forming the timing aspect of the movement and for producing the generalized motor program (GMP) associated with the most efficient movement pattern. Delayed retention results showed that KR was also a better reference than CT for learning the most efficient GMP. The calibration strategy undertaken by subjects who were provided with KR during acquisition explains the superiority of the KR reference. The calibration strategy is compared with the pattern-matching activity that was probably undertaken by subjects who had received CT as a reference.     

Synchronous vs. non-synchronous imitation: Using dance to explore interpersonal coordination during observational learning

Observational learning can enhance the acquisition and performance quality of complex motor skills. While an extensive body of research has focused on the benefits of synchronous (i.e., concurrent physical practice) and non-synchronous (i.e., delayed physical practice) observational learning strategies, the question remains as to whether these approaches differentially influence performance outcomes. Accordingly, we investigate the differential outcomes of synchronous and non-synchronous observational training contexts using a novel dance sequence. Using multidimensional cross-recurrence quantification analysis, movement time-series were recorded for novice dancers who either synchronised with (n = 22) or observed and then imitated (n = 20) an expert dancer. Participants performed a 16-count choreographed dance sequence for 20 trials assisted by the expert, followed by one final, unassisted performance trial. Although end-state performance did not significantly differ between synchronous and non-synchronous learners, a significant decline in performance quality from imitation to independent replication was shown for synchronous learners. A non-significant positive trend in performance accuracy was shown for non-synchronous learners. For all participants, better imitative performance across training trials led to better end-state performance, but only for the accuracy (and not timing) of movement reproduction. Collectively, the results suggest that synchronous learners came to rely on a real-time mapping process between visual input from the expert and their own visual and proprioceptive intrinsic feedback, to the detriment of learning. Thus, the act of synchronising alone does not ensure an appropriate training context for advanced sequence learning.     

Neurobiological and endocrine correlates of individual differences in spatial learning ability

The polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM) has been implicated in activity-dependent synaptic remodeling and memory formation. Here, we questioned whether training-induced modulation of PSA-NCAM expression might be related to individual differences in spatial learning abilities. At 12 h posttraining, immunohistochemical analyses revealed a learning-induced up-regulation of PSA-NCAM in the hippocampal dentate gyrus that was related to the spatial learning abilities displayed by rats during training. Specifically, a positive correlation was found between latency to find the platform and subsequent activated PSA levels, indicating that greater induction of polysialylation was observed in rats with the slower acquisition curve. At posttraining times when no learning-associated activation of PSA was observed, no such correlation was found. Further experiments revealed that performance in the massed water maze training is related to a pattern of spatial learning and memory abilities, and to learning-related glucocorticoid responsiveness. Taken together, our findings suggest that the learning-related neural circuits of fast learners are better suited to solving the water maze task than those of slow learners, the latter relying more on structural reorganization to form memory, rather than the relatively economic mechanism of altering synaptic efficacy that is likely used by the former.     

动画教学代理对多媒体学习的影响:学习者经验与偏好的调节作用

以往研究发现,动画教学代理对多媒体学习效果的影响不一致,可能受到学习者特征和偏好的调节。本研究以“空调的组成部分及工作原理”为实验材料,采用两个实验控制教学代理有无、经验高低和代理偏好,探讨动画教学代理对多媒体学习的影响。实验1发现与无代理组相比,代理组对教学视频的注视点个数更多,平均眼跳潜伏期更短,学习兴趣也更高;低经验者在代理条件下的迁移成绩更好。实验2发现学习者在偏好代理和非偏好代理条件下的迁移成绩好于无代理组;偏好代理组感知到更低的认知负荷,对总体视频的注视点个数和注视频率更多,平均眼跳潜伏期更短,对学习内容的注视点个数更多。结论认为：在多媒体中加入教学代理不会减少学习者对学习内容的注意,能提高多媒体学习效果,支持社会代理理论假设;教学代理能提高低经验者的学习效果,但对高知识经验者无明显作用;加入学习者偏好的代理形象会促进学习,但加入学习者非偏好的代理形象并没有阻碍学习。     

Effects of stress and motivation on performing a spatial task

Learning is ubiquitous in the animal kingdom but has been studied extensively in only a handful of species. Moreover, learning studied under laboratory conditions is typically unrelated to the animal's natural environment or life history. Here, we designed a task relevant to the natural behavior of male African cichlid fish (Astatotilapia burtoni), to determine if they could be trained on a spatial task to gain access to females and shelter. We measured both how successfully animals completed this task over time and whether and how immediate early gene and hormone expression profiles were related to success. While training fish in a maze, we measured time to task completion, circulating levels of three key hormones (cortisol, 11-ketotestosterone, and testosterone) and mRNA abundance of seven target genes including three immediate early genes (that served proxies for brain activity) in nine brain regions. Data from our subjects fell naturally into three phenotypes: fish that could be trained (learners), fish that could not be trained (non-learners) and fish that never attempted the task (non-attempters). Learners and non-learners had lower levels of circulating cortisol compared to fish that never attempted the task. Learners had the highest immediate early gene mRNA levels in the homologue of the hippocampus (dorsolateral telencephalon; Dl), lower cortisol (stress) levels and were more motivated to accomplish the task as measured by behavioral observations. Fish that never attempted the task showed the lowest activity within the Dl, high stress levels and little to no apparent motivation. Data from non-learners fell between these two extremes in behavior, stress, and motivation.     

Shifts in attention demands and motor program utilization during motor learning

The relationship between changes in the level of motor program utilization and attention demand during the learning of a motor task was examined. The primary task involved an 86-cm horizontal arm movement which subjects attempted to complete coincident with the end of a 360 degrees sweep of a clock hand. A secondary task performed with the opposite limb required a rapid button press to an auditory probe stimulus presented at various temporal locations within each trial. Control subjects performed either the primary task or the secondary task alone, while experimental subjects performed both tasks in combination. Schmidt's (1972) index of preprogramming was used to measure the level of motor program utilization, while probe reaction time reflected the attention demand of the primary task. There was a stable level of motor programming over four consecutive days of practice (100 trials a day), but a general decrease in attention demand. Implications for an expansion of the concept of the motor program were discussed.     

The movement-induced self-reference effect: enhancing memorability through movement toward the self

Much evidence suggests that bodily actions affect cognitive states. In particular, pulling owned objects toward the self improves memory for those objects compared to memory for objects pushed away from the self. Experiments 1 and 2 examined the effect of incidental joystick movement on static stimuli, hypothesizing that using the physical self (rather than a computer monitor) as a reference point would enhance memory for items categorized via a toward-the-self action but not toward-the-computer-monitor action. Experiment 3 examined whether movement toward an external representation of self, one’s cellular phone, would enhance memory compared to the same movement toward an unfamiliar phone. Recognition memory was enhanced for both words and pictures evaluated during movements toward a representation of the self, regardless of whether the representation was a physical self or a disembodied self. Furthermore, movement toward the self enhanced memory, rather than movement away from the self depressing memory. These results suggest that self-referential processing can be induced by an approach motor action and impact episodic memory regardless of intention to learn, stimulus type, or motion of the stimuli. They also suggest that self-referential memory advantage can be disembodied.     

Preparatory Set,Response Complexity,and Reaction Latency

The interaction between preparatory set and response complexity was demonstrated in an experiment investigating the reaction latency of discrete arm movements. Following simple finger-lift reaction-time (RT) trials, subjects performed simple and complex versions of a discrete horizontal arm movement under one of two enforced preparatory set conditions. For the simple task, requiring subjects to attend to the components of the response prior to stimulus presentation (enforced motor set) produced significantly shorter RTs than when concentration was on the stimulus (enforced sensory set). However, RT differences for the complex version of the task failed significance. Theoretical implications of the results for Henry’s (1960) memory drum theory of neuromotor reaction were discussed.     

Age effects shrink when motor learning is predominantly supported by nondeclarative, automatic memory processes: evidence from golf putting

Can motor learning be equivalent in younger and older adults? To address this question, 48 younger (M = 23.5 years) and 48 older (M = 65.0 years) participants learned to perform a golf-putting task in two different motor learning situations: one that resulted in infrequent errors or one that resulted in frequent errors. The results demonstrated that infrequent-error learning predominantly relied on nondeclarative, automatic memory processes whereas frequent-error learning predominantly relied on declarative, effortful memory processes: After learning, infrequent-error learners verbalized fewer strategies than frequent-error learners; at transfer, a concurrent, attention-demanding secondary task (tone counting) left motor performance of infrequent-error learners unaffected but impaired that of frequent-error learners. The results showed age-equivalent motor performance in infrequent-error learning but age deficits in frequent-error learning. Motor performance of frequent-error learners required more attention with age, as evidenced by an age deficit on the attention-demanding secondary task. The disappearance of age effects when nondeclarative, automatic memory processes predominated suggests that these processes are preserved with age and are available even early in motor learning.     

Beat It! Music Overloads Novice Dancers

Together with melody, harmony, and timbre, rhythm and beat provide temporal structure for movement timing. Such musical features may act as cues to the phrasing and dynamics of a dance choreographed to the music. Novice dancers (N = 54) learned to criterion a novel 32‐s dance‐pop routine, either to full music or to the rhythm of that music. At test, participants recalled the dance to the same music, rhythm, new music, and in silence. If musical features aid memory, then full music during learning and test should result in superior dance recall, whereas if rhythm alone aids memory, then rhythm during learning and test should result in superior recall. The presence of a rhythm accompaniment during learning provided a significantly greater memory advantage for the recall of dance‐pop steps than full music. After learning to full music, silence at test enhanced recall. Findings are discussed in terms of entrainment and cognitive load. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age effects shrink when motor learning is predominantly supported by nondeclarative,automatic memory processes: Evidence from golf putting

Can motor learning be equivalent in younger and older adults? To address this question, 48 younger (M?=?23.5 years) and 48 older (M?=?65.0 years) participants learned to perform a golf-putting task in two different motor learning situations: one that resulted in infrequent errors or one that resulted in frequent errors. The results demonstrated that infrequent-error learning predominantly relied on nondeclarative, automatic memory processes whereas frequent-error learning predominantly relied on declarative, effortful memory processes: After learning, infrequent-error learners verbalized fewer strategies than frequent-error learners; at transfer, a concurrent, attention-demanding secondary task (tone counting) left motor performance of infrequent-error learners unaffected but impaired that of frequent-error learners. The results showed age-equivalent motor performance in infrequent-error learning but age deficits in frequent-error learning. Motor performance of frequent-error learners required more attention with age, as evidenced by an age deficit on the attention-demanding secondary task. The disappearance of age effects when nondeclarative, automatic memory processes predominated suggests that these processes are preserved with age and are available even early in motor learning.     

The effects of ageing and cognitive impairment on on‐line and off‐line motor learning

Skilled performance is a collective function of practice‐related experiences (online learning) and post‐practice memory consolidation during sleep (offline learning). This study examines the effects of ageing and cognitive impairment on the on‐ and offline learning of a point‐to‐point arm movement. In a 3‐day experiment, older adults (cognitively normal or impaired) and young adults (YAs) were randomly assigned to practice or no‐practice conditions. Changes in the dependent measures of movement time and timing error were analysed within and between conditions across days. The findings suggest that both age and cognitive function affect skill learning. YAs improved performance via both on‐ and offline learning whereas older adults with normal cognitive capacities appeared to learn the movement skill primarily in an online mode. Cognitive impairments were found to hinder both types of skill learning. Implications for motor skill acquisition and rehabilitation are briefly discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.