The motivations of adolescents who are addicted to online games: a cognitive perspective

This research explored, from the perspective of cognitive theory, the psychological motivations of Taiwanese adolescents who are addicted to online games. Study 1 focused on the differential motivations between the addicts and nonaddicts. The findings revealed that the addicts exhibited higher intrinsic than extrinsic motivation, whereas the nonaddicts showed an opposite relationship. The intrinsic motivation of the addicts was also higher than the nonaddicts. The results imply that intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in gaming addiction. Study 2 was conducted to examine whether four factors that moderate the detrimental effect of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation would function as predicted. Results indicated that extrinsic rewards would undermine intrinsic motivation when they were high expectancy, high relevance, tangible, and noncontingent. Thus, players' intrinsic motivation would be higher when extrinsic rewards were low expectancy, low relevance, intangible, and contingent. This article provides insights into the differential motivations of the addicted players and how to employ intrinsic motivators to affect their intrinsic motivation.     

Income,Motivation, and Satisfaction with Life: An Empirical Analysis

This paper focuses on how different types of motivations can condition satisfaction with life, studying whether individual heterogeneity in motivations affects the relationship between income and life satisfaction and whether the relationship between motivation and satisfaction differs for people in different income-groups. Data used in this study comes from the World Values Survey and the focus is placed on the relationship between income, motivation and satisfaction with life. Once variables such as gender, age, religion, health or education are controlled for, we find that different motivations significantly affect individual wellbeing. Moreover, our results suggest that moving from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation leads individuals to enjoy greater satisfaction with life. This is so independent of the level of income, but the role of intrinsic motivation is particularly significant for people in the low-income class. Life satisfaction also increases, within extrinsic motivation, when moving from importance placed on a good income to focusing on security and, within intrinsic motivation, when moving from emphasis placed on social relatedness to an increased feeling of accomplishment. Overall, our results suggest that different goals and intended outcomes condition individual’s perceptions of wellbeing, with intrinsic motivations being crucial in attaining greater levels of satisfaction with life.     

Profiles of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: A person-centered approach to motivation and achievement in middle school

The present study was designed to identify and evaluate naturally-occurring combinations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. Cluster analysis revealed four distinct motivational profiles based on a sample of middle-school students (N = 343): those with high levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (high quantity), low levels of both types of motivation (low quantity), high intrinsic coupled with low extrinsic motivation (good quality) and low intrinsic coupled with high extrinsic motivation (poor quality). Across two time points, students in the good quality cluster received higher grades than their peers in other clusters with poorer quality motivation, even if that motivation was present in high quantities. An examination of shifts in motivational profiles over the course of a school year revealed an intriguing balance of stability and change. Consistent with variable-centered research, movement tended to be away from the good quality and high quantity clusters and toward the poor quality and low quantity clusters.     

动机的结构与效应：基于动机连续体的视角

动机是影响学生学业成绩重要的非认知因素。通常认为动机对学习是有利的,但研究发现并非所有动机都是有益的,这提醒研究人员有必要区分出各种不同的动机类型。现有研究一致表明内部动机对学业成就具有积极且长期稳定的效应,而外部动机的效应尚存在争议。具体而言,有研究者认为外部动机对学业成就是有害的,但部分研究发现外部动机在某些特定情况下能够发挥着不可或缺的积极作用。 针对上述存在的争议,本研究梳理了“动机连续体”这一概念,从两个方面的研究来进行阐释。首先,从大理论的角度整合了动机的相关理论,以自我决定理论的动机连续体为基础,引出相关理论,如兴趣理论、目标理论、期望价值理论、自我价值理论、强化理论、社会认知理论等。这些理论可以解释动机连续体中一种或几种类型的动机。 其次,从动机的结构及其如何影响结果变量这一角度对上述理论及其应用进行总结,主要存在四个观点。传统的争论集中在单维结构和多维结构之间。单维结构认为内部动机和外部动机是相互对立的,即内部动机会促进绩效,而外部动机会降低绩效。多维结构认为内部动机和外部动机能够相互累加,都能促进绩效。近年来,研究人员提出了更复杂的结构来整合上述观点。譬如半辐射结构使用全局因子来表示动机的整体水平,同时允许特定因子表示具体动机类型。这种半辐射结构借用了双因子模型,提取了一个“自我决定因子”,同时允许每种特定动机类型具有自身独特的影响。此外,乘积模型表明这两种动机之间存在交互作用,即外部动机的对结果的影响会因个体内部动机水平的变化而变化,反之亦然。 综上所述,本研究总结了关于动机连续体的不同理论之间的优缺点,回顾了动机结构的不同假设及其应用。在不同学科中对动机的测量方式、动机对不同结果变量的不同影响以及动机的跨文化研究等问题仍然是目前研究的热点。对动机结构和效应的深入探讨可以更好地帮助研究人员将不同的理论应用于适当的情境中。     

削弱效应是否存在：工作场所中内外动机的关系

外部动机是否削弱内部动机？已有研究结论并不一致。澄清这一问题的有效途径是对外部动机的恰当分类。研究以165名企业员工为研究对象, 针对动机的动态性特点, 采用两时点纵向研究的方法, 以自我决定理论对外部动机的分类为基础, 探讨3种不同内化程度的外部动机--外在动机、内射动机和认同动机与内部动机的关系及外部动机内化程度与自主支持的关系。研究结果表明：(1)控制性、非内化的外部动机, 即外在动机和内射动机削弱员工的内部动机; (2)自主性、内化的外部动机, 即认同动机不会削弱员工的内部动机, 而是促进和保护内部动机; (3)自主支持环境促进员工外部动机内化的程度(即认同动机的增加)。最后, 研究对所取得结果的管理意义进行了讨论。     

Group Creativity: The Effects of Extrinsic,Intrinsic, and Obligation Motivations

ABSTRACT: Creativity-reducing extrinsic motivation generally has been associated with rewards tied to task performance. However, there is also evidence that creativity-affecting motivation may also result from extrinsic rewards that are not tied to task performance. This type of motivation may be due to feelings of obligation. A research model is developed that examined how such obligation motivation differs from extrinsic and intrinsic motivations in terms of influencing creativity. Given the importance of groups in organizations, the focus is on motivation and creativity within interacting groups. A laboratory experiment is performed that involved groups determining requirements for an academic information system. The results support a conceptual differentiation between the three types of motivation.     

Decomposing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise: Application to stages of motivational readiness

ObjectivesTwo studies were conducted to evaluate the reliability and predictive validity of measures of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for exercise, and to examine differences in motivation as a function of stage of motivational readiness for exercise.DesignA cross-sectional design was employed in study one, and a longitudinal design was used in study two.MethodsIn study one, 184 healthy college students completed instruments to measure motivation and exercise stage. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were factor analyzed into subscales and validated in study two on a second sample of college students (n=220) by analyzing shifts in endorsement of motivation subscales from the beginning to end of the academic term.ResultsIn both samples, intrinsic motivation for exercise was most highly endorsed in maintenance and lowest in contemplation stage. All extrinsic motivation subscales except tangible rewards were also most highly endorsed in maintenance compared to other stages. In study two, students in activity classes (n=72) endorsed both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation more than those in lecture classes (n=70). Relative to patterns of physical activity, intrinsic motivation was greater than extrinsic motivation for the continually active group, and decreased for the continually inactive group. Exercise maintenance was fostered by greater intrinsic relative to extrinsic motivation.ConclusionIntrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be decomposed into meaningful subfactors that are differentially related to exercise adoption and maintenance.     

Individual Differences in Religious Motivation Influence How People Think

Motives matter and may have implications for how people cognitively experience meaning through religion and spirituality. Specifically, intrinsically motivated people perceive religion and spirituality are more central to meaning in life, which should promote a tendency to adopt more coherent, expansive cognitive representations. In contrast, extrinsically motivated people may adopt narrower cognitive representations since their motivation is more proximally oriented. The present study tests these possibilities by examining how religious motivation relates to action identification (tendency to use coherent, higher‐level cognitive representations). Results from 630 participants revealed that among religious people, intrinsic and extrinsic‐personal religious motivations indirectly influence higher‐level action identification through strength of spiritual beliefs. These relationships were not evident among nonreligious people. Furthermore, extrinsic‐social religious motivation and religious service attendance did not relate to action identification. These findings demonstrate that religious motivation differences are consequential for the action identities people rely upon to form a sense of meaning.     

The relationship between exercise motives and psychological well-being

The aim of the present study was to use the self-determination model of exercise motives to examine the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motives for exercise and a number of measures of psychological well-being. Undergraduate students purporting to exercise regularly (N = 227; 102 men, 125 women) were split into 2 groups: those exercising for less than 6 months and those exercising for 6 months or more. The respondents were asked to complete measures of exercise motivation, self-esteem, psychological well-being, and stress. Among individuals exercising for less than 6 months, a number of extrinsic motivations for exercise were significantly related to poorer psychological well-being. Among individuals exercising for 6 months or more, a number of intrinsic motivations were significantly related to better psychological well-being. The present findings suggest that researchers can use self-determination theory to understand the relationship between exercise motivation and psychological well-being.     

Examining the Growth Trajectories of Physical Education Students’ Motivation,Enjoyment, and Physical Activity: A Person-Oriented Approach

The study examined the growth trajectories in 757 (M age = 12.71) Finnish middle school students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation along with their enjoyment and physical activity. In addition, the study aimed to examine the role of intrinsic and extrinsic physical education motivation in the development in adolescents’ enjoyment and physical activity by identifying adolescents’ subgroups. Adolescents’ enjoyment and physical activity declined, intrinsic motivation was stable, and extrinsic motivation increased across middle school. Adolescents with highest levels of intrinsic motivation and moderate to high levels of extrinsic regulation had the highest levels of enjoyment and physical activity.     

Motivations for social withdrawal and academic adjustment in emerging adulthood

While social withdrawal in childhood is typically associated with lower academic functioning, little is known about how motivations for social withdrawal may be connected to academic adjustment in emerging adulthood. The purpose of the present study was to examine associations between social withdrawal motivations (i.e., shyness, avoidance and unsociability) and indices of academic adjustment, including academic achievement (i.e., grade point average [GPA]) and academic motivation (i.e., intrinsic value, self-efficacy and test anxiety), while accounting for gender and conscientiousness. Participants were 623 emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 25 (M_age = 20.15, SD = 1.67; 79% female) who were currently attending university. Hierarchical regression results showed that shyness was negatively associated with intrinsic value and self-efficacy. Whereas shyness was positively associated with test anxiety, avoidance was negatively associated with test anxiety. Social withdrawal motivations were not associated with GPA. The findings suggest that some motivations for social withdrawal play a role in university students’ academic motivation, but not their academic achievement.     

Managers’ theories of subordinates: A cross-cultural examination of manager perceptions of motivation and appraisal of performance

The present study sought to examine the relationship between managers’ perceptions of employee motivation and performance appraisal by surveying managers and employees in three distinct cultural regions (North America, Asia, and Latin America) within a single global organization. Three distinct cultural patterns emerged in the theories managers’ held about their subordinates. While North American managers perceived their employees as being more extrinsically than intrinsically motivated, perceptions of intrinsic motivation proved to be a more robust predictor of performance appraisal. Asian managers exhibited a holistic tendency in that they perceived their subordinates as equally motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and their perceptions of both motivations proved to be comparable predictors of performance appraisal. Latin American managers perceived their employees as being more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated, and accordingly, only their perceptions of intrinsic motivation proved to be significantly correlated with performance appraisal. In contrast to the cultural variations exhibited in manager perceptions, employees consistently reported themselves as being more motivated by intrinsic than extrinsic incentives. Explanations for the distinct cultural patterns that emerged and their implications for the study of culture and organizational behavior are discussed.     

Motivational orientations and task autonomy fit: effects on organizational attraction

The main purpose of this study was to investigate whether there is congruence between applicant needs (i.e., motivational orientations) and what is available (i.e., task autonomy) from an organizational perspective based on the fit between needs and supply. The fit between work motivation and task autonomy was examined to see whether it was associated with organizational attraction. This experimental study included two phases. Phase 1 participants consisted of 446 undergraduate students, of whom 228 were recruited to participate in Phase 2. The fit relations between task autonomy and intrinsic motivation and between task control and extrinsic motivation were characterized. Findings indicated that the fit between work motivation and task autonomy was positively associated with organizational attraction. Based on these results, it may be inferred that employers should emphasize job characteristics such as autonomy or control orientations to attract individuals, and focus on the most suitable work motivations for their organizations.     

Motivation under the microscope: Understanding undergraduate science students’ multiple motivations for research

Little is known about students’ motivations toward scientific research or the implications of pursuing multiple research motivations simultaneously. We conducted latent profile analysis (a person-centered statistical technique) on 1,052 undergraduate students from three universities enrolled in physics, chemistry, and biology laboratory sections. Based on a tripartite model that conceptualizes research motivations as intrinsic, extrinsic, and failure avoidant, analyses revealed five distinct research motivational profiles which were described as Unmotivated; Neutral Engagement, Ternary-Driven; Emerging Engagement; and High Engagement. Profile membership was associated with differences in science class experiences, science identity, and future research intentions. Results showed students were optimally motivated toward science when highly endorsing both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, with low failure avoidance. These findings contribute to the literature on self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation and multiple goals, and these data create a framework for understanding undergraduate science laboratory experiences that may aid in efforts to broaden the participation of students in science.     

内部动机、外部动机与创造力的关系研究

本研究以277名文科三、四年级的大学生为被试,综合考察在故事、连线和命名任务下,内部动机,外部动机对创造力表现的影响。多变量方差分析发现,对于三个测验的共同部分,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著,但交互作用不显著。分别对每个任务进行方差分析发现,对于连线任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应均显著;对于命名任务而言,外部动机的主效应显著,内部动机的主效应不显著;对于故事任务而言,内部动机和外部动机的主效应不显著。内部动机与外部动机之间在三个任务中均不存在显著的交互作用。多重回归分析发现,对于不同的任务,内部动机与外部动机的贡献显著不同。     

Adolescents’ Change in Motivation as a Result of Buddhist Education: How Does It Make a Difference in Their Learning Outcomes?

Motivation significantly influences students’ learning outcomes. Changing their learning motivation improves their performance. This study used an exploratory sequential mixed methods approach, with the participation of 140 adolescents attending retreats at three Zen monasteries belonging to the Truc Lam (Bamboo Forest) Zen sect, to examine how they changed their motivation, what made them change, and how the change improved their learning outcomes. The study also evaluated the effect of gender and age on changes in motivation. The results indicated that many teenagers had changed from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation thanks to Dharma lessons, teacher support, and leisure activities. Compared to students who maintained their extrinsic motivation unchanged, they had better learning outcomes. Age, but not gender, had a considerable effect on changes in teenagers’ motivation. These findings provide more evidence for extending Buddhist education and conducting further research on young Buddhist learners’ motivation in various contexts.     

The effects of intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation on well-being depend on time of day: The moderating effects of workday accumulation

Using self-determination theory and research on temporal aspects of work (e.g., time of day), this study investigates dynamic effects of task-specific motivation on well-being throughout the workday. We argue that the effects of task-specific intrinsic and extrinsic motivations on well-being outcomes (psychological vitality, job satisfaction) depend on the time of day in which the task is encountered, referred to here as workday accumulation. Our results showed that time of day interacted with intrinsic sources of motivation to predict job satisfaction, such that the relation was strong and positive early in the day and weak and positive later in the day. Time of day did not moderate the relationship of intrinsic task motivation with vitality, which was consistently positive throughout the day. The effects of extrinsic reasons for task pursuit on satisfaction and vitality were moderated by time of day, with extrinsic motivation having positive effects early in the day, but negative effects later in the day.     

绩效薪酬对员工突破性创造力和渐进性创造力的影响

研究分别从认知评价理论和习得性努力理论视角考察了绩效薪酬对员工突破性创造力和渐进性创造力的影响及其作用机制, 并检验了变革型领导和交易型领导对上述两条路径的调节效应。基于24家企业的364对上下级匹配数据的研究结果表明：绩效薪酬对内在动机和突破性创造力没有显著的影响, 对外在动机和渐进性创造力有显著的正向影响。变革型领导调节绩效薪酬与突破性创造力的关系：高变革领导情境下, 绩效薪酬通过正向影响内在动机间接对突破性创造力产生正向影响; 低变革领导情境下, 绩效薪酬通过负向影响内在动机间接对突破性创造力产生负向影响。交易型领导调节绩效薪酬与渐进性创造力的关系：交易型领导通过强化绩效薪酬对外在动机的影响进而放大了绩效薪酬对渐进性创造力的正向效应。针对上述结果, 讨论了本文的理论与实践意义。     

Reading Motivation in Spanish-Speaking Dual Language Learners: Comparing Two Types of Student Report

Abstract

Employing a mixed methods approach, this study examined the reading motivations of dual language learners (DLLs) in Grades 3–5 in a suburban Title I school in which the student population was predominantly Hispanic. Twenty-one students completed self-report surveys and participated in interviews focused on two intrinsic motivations (involvement and curiosity), two extrinsic motivations (competition and recognition), and self-efficacy for reading. Quantitative analyses of the survey and interview data were consistent in indicating that the students experienced these motivations to a moderate to strong degree, with the exception that interview-based scores for competition were fairly low, in comparison to both the interview-based scores for the other motivations and the survey-based score for competition. Correlations between scores on the survey and interview measures for each construct varied. Qualitative analyses illustrated the depth and variety of students’ thinking about their reading motivations, and provided insight into studying and strengthening students’ reading motivation in ways that may be particularly relevant for DLLs.