Predicting sun-protective intentions and behaviours using the theory of planned behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective: To synthesise theory of planned behaviour (TPB) relationships, using meta-analysis, and test the predictive utility of the model for sun protection behaviour.

Design: Thirty-eight samples were identified via database/manual searches and academic society posts based on the criteria: measuring sun-protective intentions and/or prospective behaviour; using the TPB/theory of reasoned action as a basis of measurement; and providing bivariate correlations for at least one relevant TPB association.

Main outcome measures: Sun-protective intentions and behaviours.

Results: The sample-weighted average effects were moderate-to-strong with attitudes showing the strongest association with intention (r+ = 0.494), followed by perceived behavioural control (PBC; r+ = 0.451), and subjective norm (r+ = 0.419). Intentions showed a stronger association with prospective behaviour (r+ = 0.486) compared to PBC (r+ = 0.314). A total of 39% of variance in intentions and 25% of variance in behaviour were explained. Publication bias was not evident. Moderator analyses showed that TPB associations were stronger when measures specified the Target, Action, Context and Time; in non-student samples; and when follow-up exceeded two weeks.

Conclusion: Despite recent criticism, this review shows that the TPB explains a large amount of variance in sun protection and that TPB associations are robust across different populations.     

When believing in the union is (not) enough: The role of threat and norms in intentions to act on union legitimacy and efficacy beliefs

Three field studies conducted with academics and students examined the dynamic role of threat and normative support for a union in qualifying the relationship between union‐related legitimacy and efficacy beliefs, and union intentions. There was evidence for interplay between threat and norms in facilitating people acting in accordance with their union beliefs, and in providing the conditions where those with weaker beliefs may be mobilised. In Study 1, students' perception of threat to group interests facilitated their preparedness to act on pro‐union legitimacy and efficacy beliefs. In Study 2, among academics who perceived low threat, acting on union legitimacy and efficacy beliefs was contingent on a pro‐union norm, while those who perceived high threat were prepared to act on their union legitimacy beliefs regardless of the normative environment. Finally, in Study 3, a pro‐union norm again facilitated acting on union beliefs in a low threat condition and overcame the importance of legitimacy and efficacy beliefs in a high threat condition. In sum, this research makes a case for the importance of union strategies attending to both the framing of intergroup threat and the communication of in‐group normative support for the union.     

The effects of perceived social norms on handwashing behaviour in students

Handwashing is widely considered the most effective method of preventing the spread of infectious illness. Exploring the determinants of handwashing is vital to the development of interventions to increase this behaviour. A survey based on Social Norms Theory assessed handwashing frequency and perceptions of peer handwashing in 255 university students. Participants reported their own handwashing frequency, and how often they thought their peers washed their hands in particular circumstances, to determine whether misperceptions around handwashing exist, and whether these influence the behaviour of individuals. Gender was found to be a significant determinant of handwashing frequency as females reported washing their hands significantly more often than males. Participants also believed they washed their hands significantly more frequently than their peers. Perceived peer handwashing frequency was significantly correlated with participants’ own behaviour. This effect was seen in overall handwashing and in food, waste and illness-related hand washing. These results suggest perceived social norms around hand washing have a clear association with individual behaviour. Future research might test the effectiveness of a social norms intervention in other settings which carry an increased risk of infection spread.     

The impact of socially conveyed norms on the reporting of sexual behavior and attitudes by men and women

This study explored the impact of verbally-conveyed social norms on college students’ reports of sexual behavior and attitudes. Some participants overheard a staged conversation that enforced conservative or permissive social norms. Men and women in the permissive condition were more likely to report extradyadic involvement than those in the conservative condition. Men in the conservative condition reported an older age at first intercourse and fewer lifetime and one-time only sexual partners than did men who did not overhear a conversation. Men’s and women’s reports of sexual attitudes were unaffected by the manipulation. That a transient social norm had an impact on reports of sexual behavior lends support to the notion that some apparent sex differences in sexual behavior are at least partially reporting differences due to the influence of differential social norms. Sexual attitudes were less influenced by the social context, suggesting that attitudinal sex differences may be more robust.     

Person-environment fit,job satisfaction and intentions to leave: The moderating effect of leader empowering behaviour

This study sought to determine the possible indirect effect of person-environment (PE) fit on intentions to leave via job satisfaction and the moderating effect of leader empowering behaviour on job satisfaction and intentions to leave the work organisation. Participants were 398 employees working for a retail company in Gauteng Province, South Africa (females = 68.6 %, blacks = 58 %; managerial = 5.8 %; age range = under 20 to 60 years +). They completed the Perceived Fit Scale, Job Satisfaction Scale, Turnover Intentions Scale, and the Leader Empowering Behaviour Questionnaire. Statistical mediation analysis (of PE on JS and IL), and moderation analysis (of LEB on JS and IL) were conducted. Results indicated that PE fit has an indirect effect on intentions to leave via job satisfaction. Leader empowering behaviour moderated the relationship between job satisfaction and intentions to leave. Low PE fit leads to job dissatisfaction and intentions to leave, therefore leaders should instil a sense of empowerment in employees to alleviate the impact of poor fit.     

Police intervention in riots: The role of accountability and group norms. A field experiment

This study explores the role of perceived accountability in riot police action. The basic hypothesis is that accountability, provided that non-violent norms are made salient, will lessen the chances of escalation of a conflict between police and demonstrators. Four platoons participated in a field experiment conducted at the Dutch Riot Police Academy, in which they played a riot simulation. In a 2 × 2 design, the effects of accountability and Department on attitudes and norms concerning the action of ‘police’ and ‘demonstrators’ were tested. Measurements were made before and after the simulation. Internal analysis, involving redefined accountability categories, provided support for our hypothesis. That is, perceived accountability proved to be related to a heightened public self-awareness, a less extremely positive evaluation of fellow group members, and less intergroup differentiation. The limitations of an internal analysis are discussed, as well as the importance of the nature of organizational norms and of the accountability forum in predicting the effect of accountability.     

Social influence in newly formed groups: The roles of personal and social intentions, group norms, and social identity

Intentions to participate in a group activity in newly formed groups were followed over time. Two forms of intentions were examined: traditional behavioral intention to take part in a group-based act (personal intention), and social intentions to act as an agent of the group (social intention). In addition, the study explored other group process variables as distinctive predictors of ‘social identification’. The paper concludes with a discussion of the role of social intentions, linking the findings to social identification development and maintenance over time.     

Expectations of reducing fat intake: The role of perceived need within the theory of planned behaviour

Abstract

Dietary fat intake has been implicated in the causation of major diseases including coronary heart disease and cancer. Hence, current recommendatioris to improve health emphasise the reduction of fat intake (COMA, 1991). The present study investigated the effect of perceived need to reduce fat intake and past behaviour on peoples' expectations of reducing fat intake, using the framework of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985; 1991). The effects of estimated fat intake and body weight on perceived need to reduce were also investigated. One hundred and fifty-two adults completed a four-day weighed dietary record and completed a questionnaire based on the TPB. Perceived need to reduce fat intake, cognitive and affective components of attitude and past behaviour wm found to be significant predictors of expectation of reducing fat intake. Perceived body weight and estimated fat intake were significant predictors of perceived need to reduce fat intake. The implications of these findings for health promotion policy are discussed.     

Intentions to participate in counselling among front-line,at-risk Irish government employees: an application of the theory of planned behaviour

ABSTRACT

The study set out to examine intentions to engage in counselling among at-risk Irish government employees and the differential utility of two alternative theory of planned behaviour (TPB) models of behaviour to explain intentions to participate in counselling. Individuals (N=259) employed in a front-line, at-risk occupation for the Irish government completed a TPB-based questionnaire. Quantitative analyses revealed that participants held positive to neutral intentions to participate in counselling, irrespective of gender. The original TPB model explained 49.9% of variance in intentions whereas an alternative TPB model, splitting the perceived behavioural control (PBC) construct between its internal and external control components, explained a further 8.9% of variance. Furthermore, self-efficacy was found to be the strongest predictor of intentions. This study therefore supports the use of the TPB in understanding counselling-seeking behaviour.     

Mortality salience effects on reckless driving intentions in a motorcyclist sample: The moderating role of group riding

Campaigns against reckless driving often mention the risk of dying. Research on terror management theory indicates that death claims may backfire and foster reckless driving. Here, we studied such mortality salience effects in a motorcyclist sample. Two moderating variables, particularly interesting regarding the sample of motorcyclists, were considered: group riding (vs. riding alone) and driving‐related self‐esteem. Motorcyclists were exposed to a campaign, either highlighting mortality or not. Orthogonally, cyclists were primed with riding in a group (vs. riding alone). Driving‐related self‐esteem was assessed via a questionnaire. We predicted that reminders of riding in a group would buffer against ironic mortality effects. Supporting this hypothesis, mortality salience effects interacted with the group prime. The results indicate that death appeals are likely to backfire with cyclists riding alone rather than cyclists riding in a group, especially if motorcycling is relevant to the self.     

The impact of information about the prevalence of AIDS-Preventive behavior among men and women: The mediating role of social norms

Abstract

The present study was designed to examine the effect of information about the high prevalence of safe sex on condom use intention, and to investigate the possible mediating role of the perceived social norm of friends, and the perceived social norm of future. sexual partners. Participants were provided with gender specific prevalence information, that is with the information that most men have exclusively safe sex, or with the information that most women exclusively engage in safe sexual behavior. The results show some gender differences. Information about the high prevalence of safe sex among men tends to increase women's condom use intention, and this effect seems to be mediated by the paceived social norm of future sexual partners. Men's intention, on the other hand, seems to be unaffected by high prevalence information of safe sex. Implications for research and prevention are discussed     

Knowledge,beliefs, peer norms,and past behaviors as correlates of risky sexual behaviors among college students

Abstract

HIV/AIDS knowledge, age at onset of sexual activity, perceptions of personal risk and peer norms were explored as correlates for risky sexual behaviors among college students. Ninety-nine male and 185 female college students completed a 66-item questionnaire. A majority reported being sexually active with most in mutually monogamous relationships or not currently in a sexual relationship. Multiple regression correlation analyses showed knowledge about HIV/AIDS to be very high but that this knowledge did not independently relate to the extent of risky behaviors. Perceptions of risk were positively related to number of partners and single-time partners but not condom usage. In contrast to previous studies, perceived peer norms did not independently relate to behaviors. Instead, age at first intercourse was found to have substantial overlap with current perceptions, attitudes, and likelihood for engaging in risky behaviors. The necessity for including previous behaviors in analyses of the impact of attitudes and perceived norms on behavioral intentions is discussed.     

The effect of race,sex, and career goal differences on sex role attitudes at home and at work

Male and female blacks and whites whose career goals differed as to sex role stereotypy were administered two sex role inventories. One measured attitudes toward women's expanding sex roles in the home/personal environment, while the other measured sex role attitudes in the working environment. The major finding of the present study is that black women had more traditional sex role attitudes in the home environment than white women but the same sex role attitudes about working, whereas both black and white women were more liberal in their sex role attitudes in both environments than black and white men.     

Group norms and excessive absenteeism: The role of peer referent others

Drawing from social identity and social influence theory, we propose that the absence-related norms of an individual’s work-based referent others will have a significant effect on the likelihood of excessive absence behavior. We then develop and test a model of the social mechanisms potentially underlying the relationship between referent absence norms and the likelihood of excessive absence behavior. Our findings indicate that referent group norms significantly explain excessive absence behavior, even when taking into account the absence norms associated with the formal organizational units within which these referent groups are often nested. They also indicate that permissive referent group norms are likely to have a greater impact on the probability of target excessive absence when the target has a more conformist disposition. Finally, post-hoc findings suggest that the more negative targets’ perceptions of the consequences of absenteeism, the more attenuated the impact of permissive group norms on excessive absence behavior.     

Sleep hygiene behaviours: An application of the theory of planned behaviour and the investigation of perceived autonomy support,past behaviour and response inhibition

This study investigated the sleep hygiene behaviour of university students within the framework of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB [Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.]), and examined the predictive validity of additional variables including perceived autonomy support, past behaviour and response inhibition. A total of 257 undergraduate students from an Australian university were administered two online questionnaires at two time points. At time 1, participants completed the TPB questionnaire and the Go/NoGo task as a measure of response inhibition. A week later at time 2, participants completed a questionnaire measuring the performance of sleep hygiene behaviours. Multiple and hierarchical regression analyses showed that the TPB model significantly predicted intention and behaviour. Although intention and perceived behavioural control were statistically significant in predicting behaviour, past behaviour and response inhibition accounted for more variance when added to the TPB model. Subjective norm was found to be the strongest predictor of intention implying the importance of normative influences in sleep hygiene behaviours. Response inhibition was the strongest predictor of behaviour, reinforcing the argument that the performance of health protective behaviours requires self-regulatory ability. Therefore, interventions should be targeted at enhancing self-regulatory capacity.     

Proactivity,adaptability and boundaryless career attitudes: The mediating role of entrepreneurial alertness

We examined the role of entrepreneurialism in careers in the information society and global economy, bringing together key constructs in the fields of career studies and entrepreneurship. Specifically, our study involving a diverse group of 750 undergraduate students from Singapore showed that entrepreneurial alertness to opportunities partially mediates the relation of proactive personality to boundaryless career mindset and career adaptability, but not to self-directed or protean career attitudes. Findings are discussed in relation to the contribution of entrepreneurialism to careers research and the larger issues of workforce development.     

Aids-risk behavior among homosexual males: The role of attitudes and substance abuse

Abstract

This paper reports the results of a broad survey of homosexual males regarding AIDS-risk behavior. A very high proportion reported both anxiety over possible HIV infection, and a high probability of exposure to HIV. Although over 80% of respondents reported changes in sexual behavior, the frequency of monogamous, stable relationships is unchanged from that found 16 years ago, and 19% reported continued frequent sexual partners. Consistent with “health belief” models, fear of future exposure and perceived control over behavior were strongly related to behavioral change. However, those who felt they had already been exposed were not substantially more likely to decrease current AIDS-risk behavior, which may have important public health ramifications. Alcohol and drug abuse were related to “high risk” behavior, particularly among respondents who are generally motivated to use substances to decrease “tension” or self-monitoring. Thus, using substances to decrease stress may not only relate to substance abuse itself, but to the role of substances in increasing AIDS-risk behavior.