Causal attributions and blame: associations with mothers' adjustment to the birth of a child with Down syndrome

The main purpose of this study is to explore the associations between causal attributions to others, blaming others and mothers' adjustment to the birth of a child with Down syndrome (DS). Participants (n?=?214) rated causal attributions to others and blaming others, and completed five measures of adjustment: anger, anxiety, depression, parenting stress, and attitudes towards the child. The adjustment of three groups of mothers was compared: (i) those who made no attributions to others (ii) those who made causal attributions but did not blame, and (iii) those who blamed others. Four years after the births of their children with DS, 16% of mothers blamed others and 17% made causal attributions but did not blame others for this outcome. Those who blamed others had higher levels of anger, anxiety, depression, parenting stress and more negative attitudes towards their children with DS than did those who made causal attributions but did not blame, and those who made who made no attributions to others. The adjustment of the latter two groups did not differ. Investigating blame rather than causal attributions may be a more fruitful area for future research aimed at understanding and facilitating adjustment to illness and other negative life events.     

Mothers of Mass Murderers: Exploring Public Blame for the Mothers of School Shooters through an Application of Courtesy Stigma to the Columbine and Newtown Tragedies

The families of Dylan Klebold, Eric Harris, and Adam Lanza have been blamed for raising sons who became school killers. The mothers, in particular, have been portrayed as failed parents because of their sons’ actions. We applied Goffman’s concept of courtesy (associated) stigma to analyze readers’ responses on CBS and The Huffington News weblogs and to determine if the fathers, mothers, or both parents were singled out for blame. Content analysis indicated that the mothers were always blamed for their sons’ actions; no one blamed the fathers. We concluded that courtesy stigma and gender rules are closely related in framing these responses.     

Family Stress and Adjustment as Perceived by Parents of Children with Autism or Down Syndrome: Implications for Intervention

ABSTRACT

This study examined stress and adjustment in parents of three groups of families: those with an autistic child, those with a Down syndrome child, and those with only developmentally normal children. A total of 54 families participated, with 18 representing each group. Parents of autistic children generally reported more family stress and adjustment problems than parents of children with Down Syndrome who, in turn, reported more stress and adjustment problems than parents of developmentally normal children. Although parents of disabled children reported more stress associated with caring for their child, they generally showed resilience in adjusting to the presence of a severely disabled family member. Implications for family intervention are discussed.     

The effects of early relational antecedents and other factors on the parental sensitivity of mothers and fathers

This study examines the effect of early relational antecedents (ERA, i.e. the quality of parenting parents recalled receiving as children), parenting stress, marital stress, socio‐economic factors and children's characteristics (gender and disability condition) on the parental sensitivity of mothers and fathers. The sample consisted of 116 mothers and 84 fathers of 117 eighteen month old children drawn from a larger longitudinal study on the adaptation of parents to a child with a disability. Thirty‐four children were diagnosed with Down syndrome (DS), 51 with a cleft lip and/or palate (CLP), and 32 were non‐disabled children. Multiple regression analyses reveal that mothers' sensitivity is best predicted by her level of education and family income, whereas fathers' sensitivity is best predicted by their ERA, marital stress, family income and the child's disability condition. Mothers with more education and a greater family income displayed a greater sensitivity to their children, as did fathers who perceive less marital stress, those with a greater family income and those who perceived their parents as less controlling. Also, fathers of children with DS displayed less sensitivity for their children than fathers of children with CLP or fathers of non‐disabled children. These results concord with many studies about the importance of socio‐economic factors, ERA, marital stress, parent's gender and children's factors in the understanding of parental sensitivity. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Factors associated with mothers' obesity stigma and young children's weight stereotypes

Parents and children hold negative attitudes about obesity, but little is known about individual differences in obesity stigma. The current study examined authoritarian parenting style, beliefs about the controllability of weight and fear of fat in relation to mothers' dislike of overweight individuals. Factors related to children's weight stereotypes were also investigated. Forty-nine mothers and children (43% girls) participated. Mothers showed more dislike and blame toward adults who are overweight than children who are overweight; parents were most often blamed for children's weight status. Authoritarian parenting and beliefs about controllability were related to mothers' anti-fat attitudes, but fear of fat was not. However, mothers' fear of fat was the best predictor of children's negative stereotypes toward overweight peers. The current study provides some preliminary insight into the role of mothers in children's attitudes about weight. Examining individual difference factors is also useful in planning targeted interventions to lessen obesity stigma.     

The effects of the child with Down syndrome on maternal stress

This article examines the nature and correlates of stress in mothers of children with Down syndrome. In the first part of our study, we compared 27 mothers of children with Down syndrome with 15 mothers of children with heterogeneous causes of learning difficulty. Using Abidin's (1995) Parenting Stress Index (PSI), mothers in the Down syndrome group reported lower total child‐related stress levels, particularly concerning the degree to which the mother considers the child acceptable and reinforcing. In the second part, we identified predictors of stress in mothers of children and adolescents with Down syndrome (N = 37). Children's behaviour problems related to higher levels of overall and specific domains of child‐related stress, and children who were reported as being more cheerful and outgoing had parents who judged their offspring as more acceptable and reinforcing. Mothers also rated their children as less reinforcing when offspring were older.     

Parental role participation and perceptions of responsibility for children's school adjustment

This research examined the effects of parental participation in work and family roles on perceptions of responsibility for their children's school adjustment. We hypothesized that mothers would be perceived as being more responsible than fathers, and that participation in nontraditional work and family roles would influence perceived responsibility. Contrary to the first hypothesis, college student subjects perceived fathers as being more responsible than mothers for good adjustment, but not for poor adjustment. Consistent with hypotheses, role participation influenced perceptions of responsibility, but only for mothers. Divorced mothers were credited less and blamed more for school adjustment than married mothers, especially when they worked outside the home. Implications of the findings for future research on role participation are discussed.     

An Opportunity for Genetic Counseling Intervention: Depression in Parents of Individuals with Proteus Syndrome

Depression is common, affecting 2–5% of the general population. Parental depression can confound adjustment to, and caring for, a child with a genetic condition. As part of a study on psychosocial issues of parents caring for children with Proteus syndrome, 31 parents (20 mothers and 11 fathers) completed a depression screening tool, the Beck Depression Inventory. Approximately 23% (4/20 mothers and 3/11 fathers) scored positive on the tool. Pessimism, sense of failure, general lack of satisfaction, sense of punishment, self-dislike, social withdrawal, indecisiveness, work inhibition, somatic preoccupation, and loss of libido were reported more frequently by the group of parents with positive screen results than those with normal results. These data suggest that symptoms of depression may be prevailing among parents of individuals with Proteus syndrome. Because effective interventions for depression are readily available, genetic counselors working with families affected with rare, overgrowth disorders should specifically assess parents for physical and affective symptoms of depression and refer them for appropriate clinical treatment.     

The link between child temperament and low-income mothers’ and fathers’ parenting

Numerous studies have shown that children's temperamental characteristics impact the quality and quantity of parent–child interactions. However, these studies have largely focused on middle-class samples, have not compared multiple domains of parenting across mothers and fathers, and have not considered the possibility of nonlinear associations between temperament and parenting. The present study addresses these gaps by examining the potentially nonlinear role of two temperamental characteristics—negative emotionality and sociability—in predicting the quality and quantity of low-income mothers’ and fathers’ parenting. Data were drawn from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, a study of low-income children and families. Results indicated that whereas parenting quality was somewhat impaired when children were temperamentally vulnerable (low sociability, high negativity), parents increased parenting quantity with the same vulnerable children. There was some evidence that parents were most reactive to children who scored either very high or very low on negative emotionality and sociability in both parenting domains. Patterns also suggest that mothers were more reactive to sociability, and fathers to negative emotionality.     

Factor Analysis of the Italian Version of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire in a Community Sample

Despite difficulties measuring parenting styles, many studies have demonstrated a significant relationship between disruptive children and certain parenting practices. One of the most frequently used scales to measure parenting styles is the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ). This scale was originally defined based on theoretical dimensions and using samples from the USA. Therefore, both factor analysis studies and its adaptation to other countries have been proposed to improve and widen its use. The aim of this study was to adapt the APQ to the Italian population. A community sample of 258 mothers and children (94 %) and 192 fathers (70 %) from 274 families with children from 10- to 14-years-old who agreed to participate and met the inclusion criteria completed the APQ. Principal components and exploratory factor analyses resulted in a unique 19-item version of the APQ for mothers, fathers, and children. This unified version has resulted in two factor categories: positive (12 items) and negative parenting (7 items). The internal consistency and goodness of fit of the model were satisfactory. Moderate and significant convergent validity were found for mothers and fathers but not for children. In fact, we found differences in validity rates among the participants. Children perceived less positive and more negative parenting than did fathers and mothers, and mothers believed that they provided more positive parenting than did other parents. In conclusion, the APQ Italian version of the parents and children global report forms are considered a suitable measure for positive and negative parenting styles with acceptable validity and reliability indices.     

Examining Subtypes of Behavior Problems Among 3-Year-Old Children,Part III: Investigating Differences in Parenting Practices and Parenting Stress

This study examined parenting of mothers and fathers of 3-year-old children who were classified as hyperactive (HYP), hyperactive and oppositional defiant (HYP/OD), and non-problem based on mothers' reports of behavior. Parents of children with HYP/OD were less warm, showed more negative affect, and more laxness than parents of non-problem children; however, contrary to prediction, they did not differ significantly from parents of children in the HYP group. Compared to mothers of non-problem children, mothers of children in the HYP/OD group reported significantly more parenting stress across all domains, whereas mothers of children in the HYP group only reported elevated levels of stress associated with having a difficult child. Theoretical and treatment implications are discussed.     

Gendered themes in family reminiscing

Previous research conducted in laboratory settings has shown reliable gender differences in autobiographical memory. However, these studies have primarily focused on structural or emotional aspects of memory narratives told to an unfamiliar experimenter. The present study extends this literature by investigating gender differences in social references and interpersonal themes in parent-child narratives about the past. Participants were 17 white, middle-class children and their mothers and fathers, who were interviewed when children were 40 and 70 months of age. Parent-child narratives about shared activities in the past, as well as narratives about parents' own childhood, were examined. Results indicated that when discussing shared events, both parents talked in similar ways across children, although fathers referred to self more than mothers. However both parents referred to their girls more than their boys. Regarding event themes, parents discussed more social events with girls than with boys. Children themselves showed different gendered patterns; girls mentioned self and others, and relationships more than boys did, and children mentioned self and others more often when talking with fathers than with mothers. With respect to narratives about parents' childhood experiences, however, no gender differences were observed, save that parents referred to others more often in retrospective narratives told to girls than to boys. These findings suggest that gendered behaviours are best understood within the specific contexts and purposes of relational interactions.     

Mental Health of Parents of Children with Congenital Zika Virus Syndrome in Brazil

This study aims to analyze the potential impact of taking care of a child with congenital Zika virus syndrome (CZS) on the mental health of parents. Specifically, three objectives were formulated: (a) to assess the level of mental health of the parents; (b) to examine the influence of subjective well-being and fatigue as predictors of parents’ mental health; and (c) to identify the impact of sociodemographic variables on parents’ mental health. Sixty-nine mothers (M_age?=?26.38; SD?=?6.23) and 17 fathers (M_age?=?31.41; SD?=?7.57) of children diagnosed with CZS took part in this study. They answered a questionnaire containing measures of positive and negative affects, life satisfaction, fatigue, mental health, as well as sociodemographic questions. The results indicated that approximately 7% of the participants had low levels of mental health and probable emotional disorder. In addition, higher levels of fatigue and negative affects and lower levels of life satisfaction significantly predict a lower level of mental health. Finally, comparative analysis showed significant differences between fathers and mothers: mothers reported experiencing fewer positive and more negative affects, a lower level of satisfaction with life, a higher level of fatigue and worse mental health. In summary, this article presents an overview of the mental health of mothers and fathers of children with CZS and points the way to devising strategies for psychological intervention that promote the adaptation of parents to this kind of developmental disability in the family.     

Parents’ reactions to children’s stuttering and style of coping with stress

PurposeThe aim of the research was to determine: (a) how parents react to their child’s stuttering, (b) what stress coping strategies they utilise, as well as (c) whether stress coping style depends on parents’ reaction to their child’s stuttering.MethodsThe research involved 23 mothers and 23 fathers of children who stutter (CWS) at the age of three to six years old. The Reaction to Speech Disfluency Scale (RSDS), developed by the authors, was used in the research. To determine the parents’ coping the Coping Inventory in Stressful Situations (CISS) by N.S. Endler and D.A Parker was applied.ResultsThe strongest reactions are observed on the cognitive level. Stronger cognitive, emotional and behavioural reactions are observed in the mothers towards their disfluently speaking sons and in the fathers towards their daughters. Having analysed the profiles of coping styles, it can be noticed that the task-oriented coping is most frequently adapted by the fathers. The mothers most often use the avoidance-oriented coping. No relevant correlation was observed between the fathers’ coping style and their reactions to the child’s disfluent speech. As far as the mothers are concerned, it has been proved that an increase in behavioural reactions correlates with the avoidance-oriented coping.ConclusionThe cognitive reactions of the parents’ towards their child’s stuttering were most frequent, while the emotional ones were the least frequent. Confronted with a stressful situation, the fathers most often adapt the task-oriented coping, whereas the mothers use the avoidance-oriented coping. Educational objectives: the reader will be able to (1) learn what the key reactions of parents to their children’s stuttering are, (2) describe stuttering as a stress factor for the parents, (3) describe the factors which influence parents’ reactions to their child’s stuttering and their coping style.     

Home literacy experiences and socio-cultural characteristics associated with the subtypes of reading disability

This study was designed to analyse the home literacy experiences and socio-cultural characteristics associated with the subtypes of reading disability. For this purpose, we used a reading level match design and we selected four samples of families as a function of their children's reading profile: a group of parents (15 fathers and 16 mothers) whose children had a profile of surface dyslexia (DSP); a second group of parents (6 fathers and 6 mothers) whose children had a profile of phonological dyslexia (DFP); a third group of parents (38 fathers and 41 mothers) whose children were matched in age with the children who had learning disabilities (ECP); and a fourth group of parents (33 fathers and 35 mothers) whose children were matched in reading age with children who had learning disabilities (NLP). Both dyslexic subtypes showed a deficit in phonological awareness, but children with surface dyslexia also showed a deficit in orthographical processing assessed by homophone comprehension task. This deficit was related to home literacy experiences because the group of parents whose children had surface dyslexia, in comparison to parents of children matched in reading age, promoted fewer home literacy experiences.     

Attitudes of Mothers of Children with Down Syndrome Towards Noninvasive Prenatal Testing

Noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) allows for highly sensitive detection of Down syndrome early in pregnancy with no risk of miscarriage, therefore potentially increasing the number of pregnancies identified with Down syndrome. This study assesses how mothers of children with Down syndrome perceive NIPT, especially the impact they think it will have on their families and other families with children who have Down syndrome. Seventy-three self-reported mothers of children with Down syndrome responded to an anonymous online survey emailed to, and posted on, message boards of various Down syndrome support groups and networks. Data analysis included chi-square tests and thematic analysis. Fifty-nine percent of respondents indicated they would use NIPT in the future; respondents who had not used prenatal testing in the past were significantly less likely to report interest in using NIPT in the future than those who had prenatal testing previously (p?MOST important factor. They also highlight the need to provide a diagnosis of Down syndrome in a balanced and objective manner.     

Validity of the parenting scale for parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The present study examined the validity of the parenting scale for parents of elementary school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Parents from 109 families with children who had been diagnosed with ADHD (106 mothers and 93 fathers) and from 70 families with non-problem children (69 mothers and 59 fathers) completed the parenting scale and reported on their children's behavior problems. Factor analyses revealed two interpretable factors for both mothers and fathers, corresponding to the overreactivity and laxness factors identified in previous studies of the parenting scale. Overreactivity and laxness scores were significantly higher for mothers and fathers of ADHD children than of non-ADHD children; this effect appeared to be accounted for by comorbid aggression and conduct problems among ADHD children. Results support the validity of the parenting scale for use with parents of ADHD children.