Settling on what we are: The central place of the sense‐of‐self in education,and the implication of the concepts of the teleon and telentropy for the development of the sense‐of‐self

The purpose of this article is to illustrate the centrality of the development of a person's sense‐of‐self in his or her personal growth, and so to justify why educators should deliberately focus the attention of learners on the development of their own senses‐of‐self.

We describe the sense‐of‐self as a person's working hypothesis of what he or she is, as a functioning being. (This is in contrast to the notion of self‐concept, which is composed of the beliefs and evaluations that one has about oneself as a person in a social context.)

To illustrate the centrality of the sense‐of‐self we introduce two associated concepts—the teleon and telentropy. Teleons are “purposeful action patterns,” which may be regarded as the defining characteristic of any living system, including human beings.

Telentropy is similar to entropy (encountered in physics and chemistry), but instead of dealing with the level of disorder in externally described systems, it represents the level of informational confusion existing within an organism regarding its own true nature.

We discuss the implications of the concepts “teleon” and “telentropy” for a person's educability, using examples from daily life and educational institutions.

We provide a number of suggestions for the revising of educational practice to foster the development of the sense‐of‐self in learners. This we demonstrate to have potentially beneficial effects of the general stress levels of society.     

A study on the theory of “returning to the original” and “recovering nature” in Chinese philosophy

The approach of returning to the original and recovering nature is a typical characteristic of Chinese philosophy. It was founded by the Daoist School and followed by both Daoist and Confucian schools. The precondition of returning to the original and recovering nature is the stillness and goodness within nature integrated into a whole afterwards. Its implementation includes not only returning to the original root so as to achieve the philosophical aim but also restoration to the original nature after it is injured by man’s physical nature and desire. The realization of human nature depends on the work making up for the loss of the original nature. Although there are different methods of realization concerning the return to the original nature, such as returning to the root, seeking the lost mind, extinguishing desire, being good at return, and the self-consciousness of intuitive knowledge, all of these aim at returning to the original nature of stillness and purity. The philosophical value consists in the unceasing pursuit of returning to the original nature.     

Some thoughts on self‐disclosure and the danger‐safety balance in the therapeutic relationship

This paper examines the assumptions and recommendations of Irwin Hoffman on self‐disclosure and Jay Greenberg on the danger—safety balance in the therapeutic relationship. On the basis of this examination, alternatives to the ideas of Hoffman and Greenberg are offered for consideration.     

The bodily complexity of truth‐telling in qualitative research: Some implications of Gendlin's theory

Abstract

Gendlin's philosophy of the body is used as an approach to the “truth values” of qualitative research. In this view, our bodily participation in life provides a grounded quality to understanding, a shared reference point for an experientially‐grounded language that can “'work.” This understanding is a bodily‐informed practice and involves the body's access to “more than words can say.” As such, the body is intimate to understanding and such bodily‐informed sense‐making adds a dimension to the ways we have access to and present truth. Implications of this approach for qualitative methodology will be discussed, in particular the implications for the informant's task, the interviewer's task, the task of analysis and the task of the reader.     

A healing relationship: Clients’ experiences of the long-term relational significance of the horse in horse assisted psychotherapy

Horse assisted psychotherapy is a type of treatment for mental ill-health in which the client forms a relationship with a horse. Research suggests that the relationship to a horse is very helpful to clients, but how the horse is experienced many years after the end of treatment has not been investigated. The aim of the present study was thus to investigate how former clients from horse assisted psychotherapy experienced the horse several years after treatment was completed. Former clients (n = 5; all females) from one and the same treatment center were interviewed and the data was analyzed with an inductive thematic approach. The analysis showed that many years after completion of treatment, the horses were still remembered as the most important individuals in the informants’ lives during the time of treatment. This was captured by the core category ‘A healing relationship’. These findings are in line with previous research that found that patients in horse assisted psychotherapy and their family members attributed improvements from treatment to the patients’ relationship to the horses, but adds that the clients also keep these views at follow-up several years after termination of treatment.     

Intrusive re‐experiencing in post‐traumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology,theory, and therapy

The article describes features of trauma memories in post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including characteristics of unintentional re‐experiencing symptoms and intentional recall of trauma narratives. Re‐experiencing symptoms are usually sensory impressions and emotional responses from the trauma that appear to lack a time perspective and a context. The vast majority of intrusive memories can be interpreted as re‐experiencing of warning signals, i.e., stimuli that signalled the onset of the trauma or of moments when the meaning of the event changed for the worse. Triggers of re‐experiencing symptoms include stimuli that have perceptual similarity to cues accompanying the traumatic event. Intentional recall of the trauma in PTSD may be characterised by confusion about temporal order, and difficulty in accessing important details, both of which contribute to problematic appraisals. Recall tends to be disjointed. When patients with PTSD deliberately recall the worst moments of the trauma, they often do not access other relevant (usually subsequent) information that would correct impressions/predictions made at the time. A theoretical analysis of re‐experiencing symptoms and their triggers is offered, and implications for treatment are discussed. These include the need to actively incorporate updating information ( “I know now …”) into the worst moments of the trauma memory, and to train patients to discriminate between the stimuli that were present during the trauma ( “then”) and the innocuous triggers of re‐experiencing symptoms ( “now”).     

Dependent origination and the dual‐nature of the Japanese aesthetic

As most commentators on Japanese aesthetics agree, the Japanese aesthetic is pervaded by a profound affirmation of things in their suchness or original uniqueness, and at the same time is tinged with an element of sadness or melancholy. While the responses of affirmation and melancholy seem rather subjective and may—at first glance—appear inconsistent with Buddhist notions like anatman, or non‐self and the Buddhist demand for non‐attachment, I shall argue that a more careful reading of certain Buddhist doctrines, specifically the doctrine of dependent origination or pratitya‐samutpāda, reveals that the basic tenets of Buddhism are not only consistent with these sorts of subjective responses, but in fact serve to help explain the dual nature of the Japanese aesthetic. Accordingly, I shall suggest that given the undeniable influence Buddhism has had on Japanese culture, it seems likely that the doctrine of dependent origination is not only compatible with, but also contributed to the formation of what we regard as the Japanese aesthetic.     

Creativity and the subliminal manipulation of projected self‐images

Abstract:

This is a report of two experiments on the relationship between creativity and the effects of manipulations of self‐image. Creativity was estimated with the Creative Functioning Test (CFT), an assessment of the tendency to bar the use of subjective interpretations when the support for a “correct” interpretation is being gradually eroded. Self‐image was manipulated in the Identification Test (IT). This involves a backwards masking design in which an ambiguous picture of a face is presented briefly on a viewing screen, preceded by either of two subliminal verbal messages. These were I SUPERIOR and I INFERIOR in a pilot study (n = 25) and I GOOD and I BAD in the main study (n = 33). In the latter, there was also an interview which served to further cross‐validate the CFT. In both studies, creative subjects alternated between reporting young faces and adult ones significantly more often than uncreative subjects. Their identity was not, then, fixedly adult. Creative and uncreative subjects also defended their projected self‐image in different ways against the subliminal manipulations. High and stable self‐confidence was typical of both highly creative and uncreative subjects, but not of subjects in the middle range. Still, the self‐confidence in the two extreme groups was only superficially similar.     

The experience of ‘healing stories’ in the life narrative: A grounded theory

‘healing stories' are part of an emergent narrative literature in psychology and counselling. This research explored the subjective experience of ‘healing stories’ within the context of individual's life narratives. A grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin, 1990) method of analysis was used to generate and analyse six participant's life narratives. Analysis of these accounts revealed three categories. The first is the context of struggle that preceded the healing process. participants told of struggle in their relationships with others as well as turmoil in their experience of themselves. The second category, the healing process reflected the participants' growing awareness of life's existential givens (Yalom, 1980). This represented a personal exploration that opened lparticipants to a ‘healing story’ that offered them an insight into choices and possibilities for liberation. The third category illustrated that in the ongoing struggle the ‘healing story’ has continued to provide inspiration in the participants' lived experience as an ‘evoked companion’ (Stern, 1985). This research posited a core dynamic whereby participants' experience of their ‘healing story’ provided not only an initial inspiration that was healing but also, in their ongoing struggle, the ‘healing story’ continued to inspire their lived experience.     

Social skills and sex‐role functioning in borderline personality disorder: relationship to self‐mutilating behavior

This study compared the social skills functioning and sex role affiliation of female inpatients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder who engaged in self‐mutilating behavior (n?=?30) with female patients with borderline personality disorder who did not engage in such behavior (n?=?18). Patients with borderline personality disorder who engaged in self‐mutilating behavior were found to have relatively poorer skills in communicating non‐verbal emotional information to others and in receiving and interpreting such information from others. In terms of sex role orientation, patients who engaged in self‐mutilating behavior were significantly more likely than non‐mutilators to be typed as undifferentiated using the Bem Sex Role Inventory. These participants were less likely to identify with either masculine or feminine sex roles. Patients who did not self‐mutilate were found to be significantly more likely than those who did self‐mutilate to identify with the masculine sex role.     

Trauma,personality disorders and chronic depression – the role of the conversational model of psychodynamic psychotherapy in treatment resistant depression

Objective: To report preliminary data describing the interim treatment outcome of 44 patients referred with treatment-resistant depression (TRD), comorbid personality disorders and histories of early childhood trauma using the Conversational Model (CM) of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Method: Patients (N = 44), 13 males and 31 females with long histories of depression ranging from 2 to 30 years, resistant to multiple trials of treatment, were referred by mental health practitioners, including psychiatrists. They were treated with twice weekly CM psychotherapy by multidisciplinary trainees and supervised by experienced trained clinicians. Questionnaires were administered at assessment and at 12 months to assess symptoms, functioning, self-esteem, history of trauma, personality functioning and suicidality. In this preliminary study, there was no separate control group, and patients served as their own controls. Results: Patients with TRD were found to have comorbid severe personality disorders and histories of early childhood trauma. Significant improvement in symptoms, self-esteem, functioning and suicidality was noted after 12 months. Conclusion: Patients responded with symptomatic and functional improvement to twice weekly CM therapy.     

A pilot exploration of the use of compassionate images in a group of self‐critical people

Self‐criticism has long been associated with a variety of psychological problems and is often a key focus for intervention in psychotherapy. Recent work has suggested that self‐critics have underelaborated and underdeveloped capacities for compassionate self‐soothing and warmth. This pilot study developed a diary for monitoring self‐attacking and self‐soothing thoughts and images. It also explored the personal experiences of a group of volunteer self‐critics from the local depression support group who were given training in self‐soothing and self‐compassion. Although using small numbers, this study suggests the potential value of developing more complex methodologies for studying the capacity for self‐compassion, interventions to increase self‐compassion (including imagery techniques), and their effects on mental health.     

A syndrome of errant sexuality – and the self

Abstract

Sexual activity can be viewed as a service for the self. Addictive, perverse and aversive devices mostly build an aggregate. I will present self-psychological and other views for understanding such an aggregation of errant sexuality. In the course of the development of culture, sexuality has developed a variety of functions. Self-psychology views sexual activity as a device for establishing and/or repairing coherence and vitality of the self. In the present paper, I will posit perverse action as being part of a conglomerate – consisting of addictive, perverse and aversive features as different but interdependent appearances of sexual life. Fundamental to developing and sustaining deviant sexuality, as perverse activity, is sexualisation. A vertical split is often described. The individual psychodynamic may be featured by addictive and aversive attributes. Addictive, perverse and aversive behaviours are viewed as part of narcissistic behaviour disorders. Self-psychologically informed features of treatment concentrate on the anxieties of being empty and destructive, and thus being unable to engage in an intimate relationship. The healing process consists of helping the client to establish a stronger self, able to build up and maintain relationships with sufficiently sustaining self-object qualities.

Triebel A.

Sexualität kann als Aktivität im Dienste des Selbst angesehen werden. Süchtige, perverse und aversive Verrichtungen bilden meistens ein Aggregat. Ich will selbstpschologische und andere Gesichtspunkte darstellen, um eine solche Ansammlung umherirrender Sexualität zu verstehen. Im Verlauf der Entwicklung der Kultur hat Sexualität eine Vielzahl von Funktionen entwickelt. Selbstpschologie sieht sexuelle Aktivität als eine Maßnahme, um die Kohärenz und Vitalität des Selbst zu etablieren und/oder wieder herzustellen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit will ich perverse Handlung als Teil eines Konglomerats darstellen – bestehend aus süchtigen, perversen und aversiven Zügen als verschiedenartige aber interdependente Erscheinungen sexuellen Lebens. Grundlegend für die Entwicklung und Aufrechterhaltung devianter Sexualität, wie perverser Aktivität, ist die Sexualisierung. Oft wird eine vertikale Spaltung beschrieben. Die individuelle Psychodynamik kann durch süchtige und aversive Attribute gekennzeichnet sein. Süchtige, perverse und aversive Verhaltensweisen werden als Teil von narzißtischen Verahltensstörungen angesehen. Selbstpsychologisch informierte Merkmale der Behandlung konzentrieren sich auf Ängste, leer und destruktiv zu sein und somit unfähig, sich in einer intimen Beziehung zu engagieren. Der Heilungsprozeß besteht in der Hilfe, ein stärkeres Selbst zu etablieren und die Fähigkeit, Beziehungen mit genügend tragenden Selbst-Objekt Qualitäten aufzubauen und zu erhalten.

Tribel A. Un síndrome de Sexualidad Errante-y del Self

La actividad sexual puede ser vista como al servicio del self. Adicciones, perversiones y mecanismos aversivos la mayoría de la veces conforman un agregado. Presentaré el punto de vista de la psicología del Self y otros para la comprensión de la incorporación de la sexualidad errante. En el curso de desarrollo de cultura sexual se han desarrollado una variedad de funciones. La psicología del Self contempla la actividad sexual como un mecanismo para el establecimiento de la coherencia y/ o la reparación y vitalidad del Self. En este trabajo propondré la acción perversa como una parte de un conglomerado, consistente en un futuro adictivo, perverso y aversivo, como partes diferentes pero interdependientes apariencias de la vida sexual. Fundamentalmente para el desarrollo y sostenimiento de la desviación sexual. A menudo se describe una escisión vertical. La psicodinamia individual puede ser representada por atributos adictivos y aversivos. Comportamientos adictivos, perversos y aversivos son vistos como parte de trastornos de comportamiento narcisista. La psicología del self informa sobre tratamientos concentrados en las ansiedades de sentirse vacíos y destructivos y por tanto incapaz de unirse en una relación intima. El proceso de cura consiste en ayudar a establecer un self más fuerte, capaz de construir y mantener relaciones con sostenimiento suficiente de las cualidades del Self-objeto.     

A review of: “Constructing the self,constructing america: A cultural history of psychotherapy”

P. Cushman (1995) Constructing the Self, Constructing America: A Cultural History of Psychotherapy, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, pp. 430, $23.99     

An existential-phenomenological perspective on the concept of ‘resistance’ in counselling and psychotherapy

The various phenomena that are categrised under the label of ‘Resistance’ are of central concern to most models of counselling and psychotherapy. The manner in which resistance is conceptualised has vital implications for therapists approach to the therapeutic relationship. The theory of resistance in classical Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (and particularly Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy) is examined and then compared to the radical reinterpretation possible in an Existential-Phenomenoogical perspective which promotes the rejection of the role of ‘therapist as expert change agent’.     

Influence of modeling on self‐set goals: Direct and mediated effects

Research has shown that seeing another person (i.e., a model) perform at a certain level can influence the goal choice and performance of an observer. This study extended these findings by examining the model's effects on two potential explanatory mediators: expectations of reaching different performance levels and valence at those levels. The moderating effects of observer task experience and self‐esteem were also examined. In a repeated measures design, results showed that model performance influenced observers' goals, task performance, expectancies, and valence ratings. Path analyses indicated that expectancies mediated observational effects on goal choice. Results also indicated significant Model x Trial interactions, with a diminishing effect of model influence as personal experience developed. Results are discussed in terms of mediating effects of expectancies and valences on model influences on goal choice as well as the different weights given to social and personal information.     

The influence of culture on the self and selfobject relationships: An asian‐north american comparison

This essay first situates the development of self psychology within the culture of North American individualism, then delves into its relevance for understanding Asians, and comes full circle in reassessing what is universal or culturally variable in the current formulation of self psychology. The Asian self is compared with the North American one, and Asian familial hierarchical relationships with American egalitarian ones, resulting in a different cultural structuring of selfobject relationships, including the psychoanalytic one. A comparative psychology of idealizing selfobject relationships is then developed. Intercultural encounters between Asians and North Americans in the United States reveal problems in the interface because of the different culturally influenced selfobject relationships.     

A multi-informant study of the influence of targets’ and perceivers’ social desirability on self-other agreement in ratings of the HEXACO personality dimensions

In the current research we evaluated the impact of socially desirable responding on the strength of self-other agreement in personality judgments. We used a multi-informant design with self- and other-reports of HEXACO personality dimensions as well as self-reported and other-reported social desirability. Analyses were based on 305 primary participants and 709 informants. As shown by the results, neither self-other agreement nor other-other agreement regarding the personality dimensions was affected by social desirability. Furthermore, significant correlations between self-rated and other-rated social desirability emerged. The results are discussed as further evidence that most social desirability scales seem to measure substantive personality traits instead of response styles.