Making the uncontrollable seem controllable: The role of action in the illusion of control

It is well known that certain variables can bias judgements about the perceived contingency between an action and an outcome, making them depart from the normative predictions. For instance, previous studies have proven that the activity level or probability of responding, P(R), is a crucial variable that can affect these judgements in objectively noncontingent situations. A possible account for the P(R) effect is based on the differential exposure to actual contingencies during the training phase, which is in turn presumably produced by individual differences in participants' P(R). The current two experiments replicate the P(R) effect in a free-response paradigm, and show that participants' judgements are better predicted by P(R) than by the actual contingency to which they expose themselves. Besides, both experiments converge with previous empirical data, showing a persistent bias that does not vanish as training proceeds. These findings contrast with the preasymptotic and transitory effect predicted by several theoretical models.     

Shattering the illusion of control: Multi-shot versus single-shot gambles

The illusion of control refers to a phenomenon whereby people believe their chances of success at a task are greater than would be warranted by objective analysis. This article raises two questions. First, how robust is the illusion of control? Second, how might the illusion be ‘shattered?’ Previous experimental demonstrations involved situations that can be likened to unique or single-shot gambles. If, however, the phenomenon is robust, it should occur in repeated or multi-shot gambles in which the outcome depends on a series of gambles involving the same underlying random process. It should also appear in single-shot gambles that are framed so as to superficially resemble multi-shot gambles. We label this the strong illusion of control hypothesis. On the other hand, because people have a better appreciation of probabilistic concepts in tasks they are able to represent as relative frequencies, the introduction of a multi-shot or ‘pseudo-multi-shot’ context might cue people to the random nature of the task, thereby shattering the illusion. The weak illusion of control hypothesis holds that the illusion of control will occur in single-shot but not in multi-shot or pseudo-multi-shot gambles. Two studies are reported that support the weak hypothesis. Alternative explanations are considered and implications are discussed.     

An evaluation of the UK government health education campaign on AIDS

In the absence of an effective treatment for HI V the only means of containing its spread is through changes in behaviour. Health education is a key route for achieving this. To be effective, a health education campaign must result in behaviour change. The United Kingdom Department of Health and Social Security has attempted to address these needs in a recent health education campaign, which took the form of whole page newspaper advertisements in the national press. Groups of higher and lower risk subjects were questioned before and after the campaign. The desire for information was high and the vast majority of respondents named the medical profession as the desired source to turn to. 31.1% of the lower risk group and 50% of the higher risk group noticed and read the campaign. Information scores were slightly increased but the campaign had no effect on adjusting misconceptions and anxiety was not lowered. Attitudes and behaviour were unaltered. These results are discussed in the light of a content analysis of the campaign.     

Special random numbers: Beyond the illusion of control

Previous research has shown that gamblers prefer numbers they choose themselves because this choice allows them to feel more in control of the (random) outcome. We identify other conditions under which people find numbers “special” (i.e., worthy of betting more on than other numbers). By manipulating gambling task type and assigning participants a number by an endogenous system outside their own control (as is done in numerology, astrology, and other paranormal systems), we find that indeed people prefer to bet on numbers derived from particular special systems. The mechanism underlying this preference is enjoyment with the task—not control. Further, the enjoyment associated with this “specialness” is related to the prevalence of certain types of numbers (i.e., numbers based on dates and names) in the fortune-telling world and not to other factors such as individuality or even belief in the associated system. We replicate these findings using actual money and show that this prevalence-to-enjoyment link already exists in memory for dates and names and is activated and strengthened by priming the fortune-telling systems relevant to those special random numbers. Finally, we present a model of special random numbers that integrates our findings with other determinants of valuation such as regret and subjective probability. Our results expand the realm of special random numbers beyond control. Our enjoyment model has implications not only for understanding gambling, but also for understanding how reasoning under uncertainty is influenced by little-understood phenomena (such as fortune-telling systems) without affecting subjective probability or actual beliefs.     

Keeping the illusion of control under control: Ceilings, floors, and imperfect calibration

Prior research has claimed that people exaggerate probabilities of success by overestimating personal control in situations that are heavily or completely chance-determined. We examine whether such overestimation of control persists in situations where people do have control. Our results suggest a simple model that accounts for prior findings on illusory control as well as for situations where actual control is high: People make imperfect estimates of their level of control. By focusing on situations marked by low control, prior research has created the illusion that people generally overestimate their level of control. Across three studies, we show that when they have a great deal of control, people under-estimate it. Implications for research on perceived control and co-variation assessment are discussed.     

Social cognition models and health behaviour: A structured review

Abstract

A number of social cognition models have been developed to account for socio-demographic variations in health behaviour. This paper distinguishes between: (a) motivational, (b) behavioural enaction, and (c) multi-stage models of health behaviour. The models are evaluated in terms of advancement of existing knowledge and - where appropriate - predictive utility. Common themes that appear within- and between- these categories are discussed, with consideration of ways in which theory may be advanced by future research. Each approach has associated strengths and weaknesses, suggesting that a “consensus” approach to the study of health behaviour may prove fruitful. Identification of the key constructs across different model types would allow coherent integration and promote further understanding of the psycho-social determinants of health behaviour.     

Evaluating complex interventions: Perspectives and issues for health behaviour change interventions

Objective: Health behaviour change interventions (HBCIs), used in health education, health promotion, patient education and psychotherapy areas, are considered complex interventions. The objective of this article is to discuss the value and limitations of using randomised clinical trials (RCTs) to asses HBCIs.

Methods: A scoping review of the literature was conducted to identify the main challenges of using RCTs for evaluating HBCIs. The issues were illustrated by case studies selected from research conducted by our multidisciplinary team.

Results: In complex interventions, effects are produced not only by the intervention, but are strongly linked to context. Issues relating to transferability of results are therefore critical, and require adjustments to the RCT model. Sampling bias, biases related to the experimental conditions and biases due to the absence of double-blindness were examined and illustrated by case studies.

Conclusion: The results underline the importance of a multidisciplinary approach. They call for adapted or alternative evaluation models that overcome the limitations of RCTs.     

Situating interventions to bridge the intention–behaviour gap: A framework for recruiting nonconscious processes for behaviour change

This paper presents a situated cognition framework for creating social psychological interventions to bridge the intention–behaviour gap and illustrates this framework by reviewing examples from the domains of health behaviour, environmental behaviour, stereotyping, and aggression. A recurrent problem in behaviour change is the fact that often, intentions are not translated into behaviour, causing the so‐called intention–behaviour gap. Here, it is argued that this happens when situational cues trigger situated conceptualizations, such as habits, impulses, hedonic goals, or stereotypical associations, which can then guide behaviour automatically. To be effective in changing such automatic effects, behaviour change interventions can attempt to change situational cues through cueing interventions such as priming, nudging, upstream policy interventions, or reminders of social norms. Alternatively, behaviour change interventions can attempt to change the underlying situated conceptualizations through training interventions, such as behavioural inhibition training, mindfulness training, or implementation intentions. Examples of situated behaviour change interventions of both types will be discussed across domains, along with recommendations to situate interventions more strongly and thus enhance their effectiveness to change automatic behaviour. Finally, the discussion addresses the difference between tailoring and situating interventions, issues of generalization and long‐term effectiveness, and avenues for further research.     

The interpretation of change in verbal reports: Implications for health psychology

Abstract

This paper raises a number of issues for health psychology in relation to the interpretation of change in verbal reports. Drawing on a typology of change developed to evaluate organisational interventions, it is suggested that change may occur at an alpha level (e.g. changed health status), beta level (e.g. a recalibration of the respondent's scale for assessing health status) or gamma level (e.g. a reconceptualisation of the meaning attached to health). Given the likely presence of beta and/or gamma change in intervention data in health psychology, researchers may be analysing their change data at an inappropriate level. A number of existing methodologies which attempt to detect beta and gamma change are presented and discussed. The need to develop further methodologies which focus more explicitly on the nature of change is highlighted. Finally, the proposed typology has a number of practical implications for the design of health promotion interventions.     

Moving beyond the function of the health behaviour: The effect of message frame on behavioural decision-making

Health messages that provide gain- or loss-framed arguments have a differential impact on behavioural decision-making (Rothman & Salovey, 1997). Typically, gain-framed messages more effectively promote preventive health behaviours, which maintain health and minimise the risk of a health problem, whereas loss-framed messages more effectively promote detection behaviours, which involve the risk of finding a health problem. Two experiments tested the thesis that the risk implications of the behaviour are an important determinant of the persuasive impact of gain- and loss-framed appeals. Results revealed that when the risk associated with a health behaviour (either a prevention behaviour in Experiment 1 or a detection behaviour in Experiment 2) was low, participants responded more favourably to gain-framed messages. However, when the risk associated with the health behaviour (either prevention or detection) was high, participants responded more favourably to loss-framed messages. Discussion focuses on the importance of taking into account how individuals construe a behaviour when constructing framed appeals.     

When causality shapes the experience of time: Evidence for temporal binding in young children

It is well established that the temporal proximity of two events is a fundamental cue to causality. Recent research with adults has shown that this relation is bidirectional: events that are believed to be causally related are perceived as occurring closer together in time—the so‐called temporal binding effect. Here, we examined the developmental origins of temporal binding. Participants predicted when an event that was either caused by a button press, or preceded by a non‐causal signal, would occur. We demonstrate for the first time that children as young as 4 years are susceptible to temporal binding. Binding occurred both when the button press was executed via intentional action, and when a machine caused it. These results suggest binding is a fundamental, early developing property of perception and grounded in causal knowledge. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQC_MqjxZQQ     

Understanding smoking after acute illness: An application of the sentinel event method

The sentinel event theory provides a stepwise approach for building models to understand how negative events can spark health behaviour change. This study tested a preliminary model using the sentinel events method in a sample (N = 300) of smokers who sought care for acute cardiac symptoms. Patients completed measures on: smoking-related causal attribution, perceived severity of the acute illness event, illness-related fear and intentions to quit smoking. Patients were followed up one week after the health event and a seven-day timeline follow back was completed to determine abstinence from tobacco. Structural equation models were performed using average predictor scale scores at baseline, as well as three different time anchors for ratings of illness severity and illness-related fear. Quit intentions, actual illness severity and age were the consistent, positive and independent predictors of seven-day point prevalence abstinence. Additional research on the influences of perceptions and emotional reactions is warranted.     

From health beliefs to self-regulation: Theoretical advances in the psychology of action control

Abstract

The paper reviews the theoretical concepts included in a range of social cognitive models which have identified psychological antecedents of individual motivation and behaviour. Areas of correspondence are noted and core constructs (derived primarily from the theory of planned behaviour and social cognitive theory) are identified. The role of intention formation, self-efficacy beliefs, attitudes, normative beliefs and self-representations are highlighted and it is argued that these constructs provide a useful framework for modelling the psychological prerequisites of health behaviour. Acknowledging that intentions do not translate into action automatically, recent advances in our understanding of the ways in which prior planning and rehearsal can enhance individual control of action and facilitate the routinisation of behaviour are considered. The importance of engaging in preparatory behaviours for the achievement of many health goals is discussed and the processes by which goals are prioritised, including their links to self-representations, are explored. The implications of social cognitive and self-regulatory theories for the cognitive assessment of individual readiness for action and for intervention design in health-related settings are highlighted.     

Mental health and identity: the evaluation of a drop‐in centre

This paper is based on interviews with users of a drop‐in centre run by a voluntary group. Using a grounded theory approach the paper argues that individuals' use of the drop‐in is linked to the discursive strategies that they have developed to cope with stigma. Tajfel's Social Identity Theory is employed as a framework to examine how users manage the threat to their identity posed by the diagnosis and experience of mental illness. The implications of this research are examined within the context of the empowerment paradigm of mental health. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The positive contributions of hope to maintaining and restoring health: An integrative,mixed-method approach

A link between hope and physical well-being has long been suspected. To shed further light on this issue, an integrative theory of hope was used to design three health-related studies. In studies one and two, an integrative hope scale was used. In study one, greater hope was associated with depth of commitment to a healthier diet and regular exercise. In study two, the integrative hope scale was associated with a wider array of health behaviors as compared to a standard goal-oriented hope scale. In study three, a hope-centered content analysis of testimonies provided by long-term breast cancer survivors revealed a strong reliance on attachment and spirituality, dimensions typically neglected in psychological studies of this [hope] construct. An integrative approach to hope offers a framework for further research on hope and health as well as a blueprint for developing positive interventions to sustain and restore physical well-being.     

The body sensation hypothesis: A new contribution to the understanding of preventive health behavior

Abstract

A conceptualization of preventive health behaviors (PHBs) is outlined which focuses upon the body sensations that accompany performance of PHB. While many workers have noted that the sensory consequences associated with PHB may be important in understanding why non-symptomatic, healthy individuals engage in PHB, current models of PHB ignore this dimension of health behavior. The Body Sensation Hypothesis suggests that an important function of PHB may be to regulate body sensations by eliminating and avoiding aversive sensations and to produce pleasurable sensations. The implications of the Body Sensations Hypothesis for the definition of PHB, the acquisition of PHB, health education and health-cognitions, and sex differences in PHB are discussed.     

中国城市农民工子女心理健康研究述评

城市农民工子女是指户籍身份还是农民, 有承包土地, 但主要从事非农产业、以工资为主要收入来源的进城务工人员的子女, 他们一般为6~18周岁的适龄上学儿童少年。中国城市农民工子女心理健康的总体水平低于城市当地儿童, 社会认知方面存在着一定的歧视知觉、相对剥夺感和身份认同危机, 情绪情感方面表现为情绪不平衡、孤独(抑郁)倾向较强和自卑(自责)心理严重, 社会适应方面显示出社会适应不良、人际关系紧张与敏感、学习适应性较差和问题行为较多。性别、年龄、人格、应对方式、生活满意度等个体因素以及家庭、学校、社会等环境因素是其心理健康水平的主要影响因素。而关于城市农民工子女的教育干预还没有形成系统, 主要是一些质性的研究。今后研究的重点应包括研究对象与内容的拓宽、研究方法的改进与完善及系统研究和理论建构的加强等。