Self-regulatory efficacy's role in the relationship between exercise identity and perceptions of and actual exercise behaviour

Identity theory posits that when people endorse an identity they maintain or alter their behaviour in order to behave consistently with that identity. This assertion is supported in the exercise context where strength of exercise identity relates to exercise behaviour. Less is known about self-regulatory constructs that may aid individuals in behaving consistently with their exercise identity. Self-regulatory efficacy may mediate the relationship between exercise identity and exercise given the influence of this variable on exercise self-regulation; this relationship has not been examined. Exercise identity research has focused on the relationship between identity and behaviour; yet, identity theory recognizes perceptions of identity-behaviour consistency as theoretically important. Through influencing how identity-relevant information is processed, self-regulatory efficacy may also mediate the relationship between exercise identity and perceptions of identity-behaviour consistency.ObjectiveIdentity and social cognitive theories were used to examine self-regulatory efficacy as a mediator between exercise identity and i) exercise behaviour and ii) perceptions of identity-behaviour consistency.Method/designUndergraduate students (n = 311) were followed for 8 weeks. At baseline, participants completed demographic, exercise identity and exercise measures. After 4 weeks they reported their self-regulatory efficacy and after 8 weeks they reported their perceptions of identity-behaviour consistency and their exercise behaviour.ResultsConsistent with theory, self-efficacy mediated the relationship between exercise identity and both outcomes.ConclusionsFindings extend the exercise identity literature by providing empirical support for self-regulatory efficacy as a mechanism through which exercise identity strength leads to exercise behaviour and the perception of behavioural consistency with exercise identity meanings.     

Hardiness and mental health during naval deployment: The relation is mediated by social processes and not by self-regulatory processes

IntroductionThe aim of the present study was to investigate the mediating effects of cohesion and self-efficacy on the relation between hardiness and symptoms of anxiety and depression during naval international operations.Objective and methodIt was hypothesized that an indirect effect of both cohesion and operational self-efficacy would emerge even when controlling for pre-deployment measures of symptoms.ResultsThe results revealed a strong indirect effect of cohesion on the relationship between hardiness and scores on Hopkins Symptom Checklist – 25 items. The effect was evident for the total score and the dimensions of anxiety as well as depression. No effect was found for operational self-efficacy.ConclusionIt was concluded that the social process of cohesion outperforms the self-regulatory process of operational self-efficacy as a mediator between hardiness and mental health. Greater focus on developing crew cohesion may thus be important for maintaining mental health under stressful conditions.     

Hope,goals, and pathways: Further validating the hope scale with observer ratings

ABSTRACT

Objective: For the past two decades, hope theory has been an important framework for conceptualizing goal pursuits. Surprisingly there has been little effort to test the underlying suppositions of hope theory or to further validate the Hope Scale.

Method: In Study 1, participants (N = 162, M_age = 19, 61% female) completed the Hope Scale and nominated goals they would like to accomplish in the next few months. Goals were coded on several dimensions. In Study 2, participants (N = 118, M_age = 19, 59% female) completed the Hope Scale, measures of optimism and self-efficacy, and generated workable pathways for achieving standardized goals.

Results: Hope scores predicted setting objectively important, prosocial, long-term, and challenging goals. Hope (but not optimism or self-efficacy) was associated with generating more pathways for standardized goals.

Conclusions: The results of these studies generally support the tenets of hope theory and provide further validation for the Hope Scale. As expected, people with higher hope were more likely than their lower-hope counterparts to engage in what has been considered successful goal-setting behavior. Hope is associated with important goal-relevant behaviors and efforts to increase hopeful thought may be important in helping individuals to move toward important life outcomes.     

Self-Regulation Differences during Athletic Practice by Experts,Non-Experts,and Novices

Basketball experts, non-experts, and novices were studied for differences in their self-regulatory forethought and self-reflection processes regarding their free-throw shooting. Forty-three adolescent boys participated individually in the study, which involved a practice session in a gymnasium. The subjects were queried regarding their forethought goals, strategy choice, self-efficacy as well as their self-reflection attributions and feelings of satisfaction as they practiced their shooting. Among the significant results, experts set more specific goals, selected more technique-oriented strategies, made more strategy attributions, and displayed higher levels of self-efficacy than non-experts and novices. Forethought phase processes intercorrelated significantly as did self-reflection phase processes. In addition, self-reflection attributions were predictive of forethought strategy selection during further efforts to learn. The results were discussed in terms of a social cognitive model of self-regulation.     

Savoring as a Moderator of the Daily Demands and Psychological Capital Relationship: A Daily Diary Study

ABSTRACT

The present study examined daily savoring as a moderator of the relationship between daily demands and daily psychological capital (PsyCap), a collective term referring to the positive psychological states of hope, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy. A sample of university students (N = 109) responded to nightly online surveys over the course of eight days. Results showed that daily uplifts and savoring were positively related to overall daily PsyCap, as well as each individual dimension of the PsyCap. Daily demands were negatively related to PsyCap and each dimension of PsyCap. Additionally, daily savoring significantly interacted with daily demands to predict overall PsyCap, as well as the individual dimensions of optimism and resilience. Specifically, the negative relationship between daily demands and PsyCap was reduced when individuals engaged in greater savoring. The discussion focuses on the role of savoring in responding to demands and the mechanisms linking higher savoring to greater PsyCap on demanding days.     

Self-efficacy's influence on persistence on a physical task: Moderating effect of performance feedback ambiguity

ObjectivesThe present investigation was designed to test the predictions of a control theory based view of self-regulation on the complex effects of self-efficacy on persistence. Specifically, self-efficacy was predicted to have a positive effect on persistence given unambiguous feedback, but a weak, negative effect given ambiguous feedback. Moreover, the research was designed to replicate an influential set of studies on self-efficacy.DesignA 2 (self-efficacy: low, high) × 2 (feedback ambiguity: low, high) between-groups ANOVA was conducted to examine the interaction between self-efficacy and feedback ambiguity in two trials of an isometric hand-grip competitive endurance task.MethodParticipants (87 females and 67 males) competed on a hand-grip strength task against confederates who claimed to have overworked their hand (high manipulated self-efficacy) or to be tennis players (low manipulated self-efficacy). The competition occurred either in the presence (high feedback ambiguity) or absence (low feedback ambiguity) of a physical barrier between the individuals. Persistence was how long individuals could grip at 50% of their maximum voluntary contraction.ResultsThe interaction was significant and in the predicted direction. Self-efficacy was also found to negatively relate to self-reported effort regardless of condition.ConclusionsThe results from the current study confirm that self-efficacy can foster persistence when one is aware of one's current state of performance. However, consistent with a control theory view of self-regulation, self-efficacy was unrelated to persistence when feedback was ambiguous. The results have implications for understanding the role of self-efficacy in sports and highlight the importance of replications with extensions.     

The role of self-regulation strategies and self-efficacy perceptions in successful weight loss maintenance

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to identify the self-regulatory strategies which people use to lose, maintain, or manage their weight, and to assess their self-efficacy perceptions to implement these strategies. Thirty-three (N = 33) undergraduate college students were divided into three groups based on their past weight loss experience and confirmed by their current Body Mass Index: (a) overweight participants who tried but failed to lose weight, (b) participants who used to be overweight but lost significant weight and kept it off for at least six months, and (c) participants with an optimal weight. All participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA and correlation analyses. Participants who used self-regulatory strategies such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, environmental structuring, time management, social assistance and information seeking were better able to maintain or lose weight. Overweight participants reported significantly less strategy use than participants who had lost weight or who had a healthy weight. In addition, overweight participants had lower self-efficacy perceptions about implementing strategies than did healthy weight participants or participants who had successfully lost weight. Finally, a path analysis revealed that participants who reported high self-efficacy perceptions and applied their strategies persistently in the face of difficulties were more likely to successfully manage their weight.     

Social-cognitive predictors of health behavior: action self-efficacy and coping self-efficacy.

The effects of social-cognitive variables on preventive nutrition and behavioral intentions were studied in 580 adults at 2 points in time. The authors hypothesized that optimistic self-beliefs operate in 2 phases and made a distinction between action self-efficacy (preintention) and coping self-efficacy (postintention). Risk perceptions, outcome expectancies, and action self-efficacy were specified as predictors of the intention at Wave 1. Behavioral intention and coping self-efficacy served as mediators linking the 3 predictors with low-fat and high-fiber dietary intake 6 months later at Wave 2. Covariance structure analysis yielded a good model fit for the total sample and 6 subsamples created by a median split of 3 moderators: gender, age, and body weight. Parameter estimates differed between samples; the importance of perceived self-efficacy increased with age and weight.     

Self-efficacy,planning, and preparatory behaviours as joint predictors of physical activity: A conditional process analysis

Objective: Planning can bridge the gap between intentions and action, but what bridges the gap between planning and action? This study helps to answer the question by disentangling the interrelationships between self-efficacy, planning and preparatory behaviours in predicting physical activity. Preparatory behaviours are tested as a working mechanism of planning. Moreover, it is tested whether the utility of preparatory behaviours depends on an individual’s level of self-efficacy.

Methods: A survey assessed planning, self-efficacy and preparatory behaviours for physical activity. Adults (N = 166) provided data at two measurement points. In a longitudinal model, preparatory behaviours were specified as a mediator between planning and physical activity. Self-efficacy was specified as a possible moderator at two points in the model.

Results: Preparatory behaviours mediated the relationship between planning and physical activity. An interaction between self-efficacy and preparatory behaviours on physical activity was found, indicating that individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs were more active if they engaged more frequently in preparatory behaviours.

Conclusion: Planning seems to stimulate preparatory behaviours, which in turn make future physical activity more likely. Furthermore, as performing preparatory behaviours represent a step forward towards the enactment of behavioural goals, preparatory behaviours may be particular beneficial for individuals afflicted by self-doubts regarding physical activity.     

Self-doubt: Uncertainty as a motivating factor on effort in an exercise endurance task

ObjectivesResearch on the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and subsequent performance on a task has typically supported a positive linear model. However, these results typically excluded a moderate level of self-efficacy as an independent variable nor used quadratic regression analyses to test for a curvilinear relationship. There are reasons to believe that a more accurate relationship between self-efficacy and performance is curvilinear (i.e., that some self-doubt of self-efficacy may predict optimal effort) under certain circumstances.DesignThe current study examined this relationship with the muscular endurance task of a plank exercise.MethodsSeventy-five participants participated in two trials of the exercise. Self-efficacy was recorded prior to each trial and performance in the plank exercise was used as an indicator of motivational effort.ResultsThere was a significant curvilinear relationship between efficacy and performance on the first trial and a significant linear relationship between the two on the second trial. Further analyses showed that individuals who substantially over or underestimated their abilities on the first trial did not significantly alter their effort on the second trial.ConclusionsThe current study provides some support for the possibility that some self-doubt can be a motivating factor for individuals to exert maximal effort when initially attempting an exercise endurance task.     

Longitudinal examination of optimism,personal self-efficacy and student well-being: a path analysis

The present longitudinal study, based on existing theoretical tenets, explored a conceptual model that depicted four major orientations: optimism, self-efficacy, and academic well-being. An important question for consideration, in this case, involved the testing of different untested trajectories that could explain and predict individuals’ mastery-approach goal orientations. This research investigation, in particular, is of significance for its unexploratory nature, and its findings, we contend, would contribute to our understanding of individuals’ academic and learning patterns. Data were collected across six separate time points, and path analytical procedures were used to test the hypothesized relationships. MPlus 7.3 produced a number of notable findings, emphasizing mediating mechanisms and interesting trajectories, for example: (1) the impact of enactive learning experience on Time 1 optimism and Time 3 self-efficacy, (2) the positive impact of Time 1 optimism on Time 2 motivation towards learning, and on Time 3 self-efficacy, (3) the direct impact of Time 1 optimism on Time 6 mastery-approach goals, mediated by Time 4 optimism and then Time 5 motivation towards learning. This evidence, overall, is substantive in terms of making theoretical contributions, as well as informing sound pedagogical practices for consideration and implementation.     

Social Facilitation and Inhibition During Maximum Versus Typical Performance Situations

The distinction between maximum performance (“what people can do”) and typical performance (“what people will do”) has received considerable theoretical yet relatively little empirical attention. Findings from social facilitation and inhibition suggest that the relationship between performers' typical and maximum performance may not always be as straightforward as had originally been assumed. Ninety-four psychology students underwent a manipulation of their self-efficacy before doing an explaining task both under typical and maximum performance conditions. Results revealed a social inhibition effect in the maximum performance condition for participants of the low self-efficacy conditions. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

A combined planning and self-efficacy intervention to promote physical activity: a multiple mediation analysis

Many individuals are motivated to improve their physical activity levels, but often fail to act upon their intention. Interventions fostering volitional strategies, such as action planning, coping planning, and self-efficacy beliefs, can help to translate intentions into behavior. This study examines the effectiveness and the mechanisms of a combined planning and self-efficacy intervention to promote physical activity among motivated individuals. Participants (N = 883) were randomly assigned to the intervention or to a waiting-list control condition. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed that the intervention resulted in significantly more physical activity, higher levels of action planning, coping planning, and volitional self-efficacy beliefs (p < 0.01). In addition, multiple mediation analysis showed that action planning, coping planning, and volitional self-efficacy mediate between the intervention and physical activity. The study shows that the intervention successfully fostered physical activity and unfolds the underlying self-regulatory mechanisms of the intervention's effectiveness.     

Creative Metacognitive Feelings as a Source of Information for Creative Self-efficacy,Creativity Potential,Intrapersonal Idea Selection,and Task Enjoyment

Creativity scholars try to untangle the commonalities and differences between creative self-beliefs: creative self-efficacy, creative self-concept, creative metacognition, and creative role identity. While these efforts are already contributing significantly, we would like to suggest that for creative metacognition, we need to go beyond the assessment of confidence beliefs and regulation and include creative metacognitive feelings and intrapersonal idea selection as two additional components. To test the validity of our proposition, this study examined the influence of creative metacognitive feelings on creative self-efficacy, creative potential, accurate intrapersonal idea selection (agreement between individuals’ selection of their most creative idea and two independent judges’ selection of the participants’ best idea), and task enjoyment. To elicit metacognitive feelings, participants were randomly assigned to remember and write down two or six instances in their lives in which they generated novel and useful ideas that helped solve a problem. Participants then completed a questionnaire assessing creative self-efficacy, ease of recall as a proxy of metacognitive feelings, performance on a divergent thinking task, and task enjoyment. Results showed an indirect influence of recalling fewer examples on creative self-efficacy through its influence on metacognitive feelings. Metacognitive feelings then had an indirect influence, through creative self-efficacy, on creative potential and task enjoyment.     

Giving hope a sporting chance: Hope as distinct from optimism when events are possible but not probable

Popular hope theories treat hope as an expectancy-based construct, with individuals more hopeful the greater their perceived likelihood of success. Consequently, the distinction between hope and other expectancy-based concepts (e.g., optimism) is unclear. The present research aims to identify the unique nature of hope, suggesting hope is invoked in particular when expectations of positive outcomes are low. As long as there is a possibility of those outcomes eventuating, individuals highly invested in them are more likely to hope; but with greater probability hope tends to align with optimism. In Study 1, for supporters of bottom-tier football teams strongly invested in the hoped-for outcome of their team winning, hope’s relationship with likelihood was cubic, accelerating with mere possibility; contrastingly, for optimism the relationship was linear. Study 2 replicated these findings for voters’ hope in state election outcomes. Hope is distinct from optimism and positive expectation; hope is tapped into when odds are low yet individuals are highly invested in the outcome.     

Planning and Self-Efficacy in the Adoption and Maintenance of Breast Self-Examination: A Longitudinal Study on Self-Regulatory Cognitions

Many women may be reluctant to perform breast self-examination (B.S.E.) regularly due to motivational or self-regulatory deficits. The Health Action Process Approach (Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors: theoretical approaches and a new model. In: Schwarzer, R. (Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought Control of Action , pp. 217-243. Hemisphere, Washington DC; Schwarzer, R. (2001). Social-cognitive factors in changing health-related behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 10 , 47-51.), a health behavior change model that advocates the separation of motivation and action phases, such as goal setting and goal pursuit, was applied to data from 418 young women whose risk perceptions, outcome expectancies, self-efficacy, intention to perform B.S.E., planning, and reported examination behaviors were examined at two points in time. Risk perception was found to have a negligible influence in a path analysis, whereas self-efficacy emerged as the best predictor of intention and planning. Planning, in turn, appeared to be the best predictor of B.S.E. behaviors, followed by self-efficacy. The results point to the influential role that self-regulatory strategies (such as planning) play in translating goals into action. The study contributes to the current debate on stage theories of health behavior change and the orchestration of self-beliefs and strategies in the context of goal-directed behaviors.     

Alcohol-specific parenting,adolescent alcohol use and the mediating effect of adolescent alcohol-related cognitions

Objectives : Previous research indicated that alcohol-specific parenting is an important precursor of adolescent alcohol use, but failed to define the underlying mechanism. Based on social cognitive theory, alcohol-related cognitions such as alcohol refusal self-efficacy and alcohol-related expectancies were hypothesised to mediate this link.

Design : A cross-sectional survey included 1349 mothers and their sixth grade (11–12?years old) adolescent offspring. Structural equation modelling was employed to test the association between alcohol-specific parenting and adolescent alcohol use, mediated by adolescent alcohol-related cognitions.

Main outcome measures : Adolescent alcohol use, drinking refusal self-efficacy and alcohol expectancies.

Results : The associations between frequency of communication, maternal alcohol use and adolescent alcohol use were mediated by negative alcohol-related expectancies. The associations between quality of communication, rules and disclosure and adolescent alcohol use were mediated by self-efficacy.

Conclusions : The present study provides a first indication that the underlying mechanism of the association between the most important alcohol-specific parenting practices and adolescent alcohol use can be contributed to the mediating effect of alcohol-refusal self-efficacy.     

Noncognitive predictors of intelligence and academic achievement: An important role of confidence

Recent evidence about the relationship between cognitive tests and psychological noncognitive variables is reviewed. Noncognitive measures can be ordered with respect to their predictive validity. Many are poor predictors of intelligence and achievement. Measures of rationality, self-assessment of intelligence, Openness to Experience and self-concept correlate up to .35 with cognitive performance. Some domain-specific self-beliefs (self-efficacy and anxiety) have correlations with appropriate achievement tests that can reach .45. The best predictors of any kind of cognitive performance are measures of confidence (frequently reported correlations of .45 and above) that can capture a major part of predictive validity of the three self-beliefs. The role of self-beliefs has attracted much interest in education but their role in predicting performance on tests of fluid intelligence is likely to be low. However, self-beliefs and confidence in particular may prove to be the most potent noncognitive influences on the development of acculturated knowledge that is captured by measures of crystallized intelligence.     

Comparing Self-Regulatory Processes Among Novice,Non-Expert,and Expert Volleyball Players: A Microanalytic Study

Differences in self-regulatory processes of 30 college women who were volleyball Experts, Non-Experts, or Novices were studied regarding overhand serving skill during a practice episode. It was hypothesized that Experts would display better goals, planning, strategy use, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, attributions, and adaptation than either Non-Experts or Novices. It was also hypothesized that Experts would display higher self-efficacy beliefs, perceived instrumentality, intrinsic interest, and self-satisfaction in volleyball serving than either Non-Experts or Novices. All hypotheses were supported. The combined 12 measures of self-regulation predicted 90 percent of the variance in the women's volleyball serving skill. The findings are discussed according to a three-phase model of self-regulation, and recommendations are made for future research.     

Parent involvement,expectancy values,and STEM outcomes among underrepresented adolescents

Racial and ethnic achievement gaps contribute to the lack of underrepresented minorities in STEM-related careers. This research is grounded in the expectancy-value model of achievement motivation which posits that motivation is influenced by social-cognitive variables such as self-efficacy and beliefs about the usefulness or utility of the task. These social-cognitive variables (self-beliefs and task beliefs), in turn, are influenced by numerous ecological factors such as parental involvement. Parent involvement can promote children’s self-efficacy and task beliefs which is important for STEM interest and persistence. This study utilized data from the High School Longitudinal Study: 2009 (HLS: 2009) to examine links among parent involvement and underrepresented students’ STEM self-efficacy, utility, interest and achievement. Concurrent and longitudinal models conducted in MPlus tested whether parent involvement in 9th grade predicted STEM interest and achievement directly and indirectly via self-efficacy and utility. Concurrent models showed that parent involvement in STEM was significantly related to adolescents’ STEM self-efficacy which in turn was significantly related to STEM interest and achievement. Longitudinal models showed that parents’ STEM involvement in 9th grade predicted adolescents’ STEM efficacy in 11th grade which in turn predicted adolescents’ cumulative GPA in STEM courses. Parent involvement in STEM was more strongly and consistently linked to self-efficacy than to utility. These results suggest that parent involvement in STEM helps adolescents to feel more confident in their STEM abilities but it does not necessarily contribute to adolescents’ STEM utility values.