Arousal, valence, and memory for detail

A common finding in the emotion-memory literature is that memory is enhanced for positively arousing stimuli and negatively arousing stimuli relative to neutral stimuli. We tested the notion that post-stimulus elaboration is responsible for these effects. Post-stimulus elaboration refers to the process of thinking about an event (after its offset) more frequently or more in-depth. We tested the hypothesis by presenting participants with 36 slides depicting events that varied in arousal (low and high) and valence (positive and negative). The opportunity for elaboration was manipulated by requiring participants, during the interslide interval, to complete addition problems, simply view the addition problems, or view a blank slide. Cued recall memory was tested for central and background details. Based on the post-stimulus elaboration hypothesis it was expected that the greatest memory decline would occur for the central details of negatively and positively arousing slides when participants were required to complete addition problems (i.e., a distractor task x arousal x detail interaction). Contrary to the hypothesis, we found that filling the inter-slide interval with a distractor task decreased memory for negative stimuli compared to positive stimuli. This effect was independent of arousal. We also found that arousal increased central detail memory for positive and negative stimuli and background detail memory for positive stimuli but not for negative stimuli. This interaction was explained on the basis of pre-attentive encoding and cue utilisation. It was concluded that in order to understand the complex relationship between emotion and memory, future studies should include, as a minimum, the variables of valence, arousal, and detail.     

Emotional stimuli, divided attention, and memory

The emotion-memory literature has shown that negative emotional arousal enhances memory. S. A. Christianson (1992) proposed that preattentive processing could account for this emotion-memory relationship. Two experiments were conducted to test Christianson's theory. In Experiment 1, participants were exposed to neutral and negative arousing slides. In Experiment 2, participants were exposed to neutral, negative arousing, and positive arousing slides. In both experiments, the aforementioned variable was factorially combined with a divided-attention or non-divided-attention condition. The authors predicted that, in contrast to the nondivided condition, dividing attention would adversely impact neutral and positive stimuli more than negative stimuli. The hypothesis was supported; participants recalled more high negative-arousal slides than positive or neutral slides when their attention was divided rather than nondivided.     

Encoding details: positive emotion leads to memory broadening

In the current experiment we tested the hypothesis that unlike negative arousal, which leads to memory narrowing effects whereby an increase in memory for the central details is accompanied by a decrease in memory for the peripheral details, positive arousing events might lead to a memory broadening effect such that positive arousal would increase memory for both central and peripheral details. This was assessed by testing recognition for central and peripheral details of pictures that were selected to vary in a continuous manner across a wide range of arousal for both positive and negative items. The results indicated that increases in both positive and negative stimulus arousal levels led to gradual increases in memory for the central aspects of the photos. In contrast, negative arousal first increased then decreased memory for peripheral detail as arousal levels increased, whereas positive arousal led to a continuous increase in memory for peripheral details. Thus, arousing negative materials lead to memory narrowing, whereas arousing positive materials can lead to memory broadening.     

Encoding details: Positive emotion leads to memory broadening

In the current experiment we tested the hypothesis that unlike negative arousal, which leads to memory narrowing effects whereby an increase in memory for the central details is accompanied by a decrease in memory for the peripheral details, positive arousing events might lead to a memory broadening effect such that positive arousal would increase memory for both central and peripheral details. This was assessed by testing recognition for central and peripheral details of pictures that were selected to vary in a continuous manner across a wide range of arousal for both positive and negative items. The results indicated that increases in both positive and negative stimulus arousal levels led to gradual increases in memory for the central aspects of the photos. In contrast, negative arousal first increased then decreased memory for peripheral detail as arousal levels increased, whereas positive arousal led to a continuous increase in memory for peripheral details. Thus, arousing negative materials lead to memory narrowing, whereas arousing positive materials can lead to memory broadening.     

Determinants of the vividness of visual imagery: The effects of delayed recall,stimulus affect and individual differences

This study investigated the influence of emotion on vividness of imagery. A total of 80 undergraduate participants saw 25 pictures from the International Affective Picture System, representing different dimensions of valence and arousal. They rated each stimulus for valence, arousal, and emotionality. Each stimulus was then presented again, and participants formed an image of it, rating the image for vividness, valence, arousal, and emotionality. During a 15‐minute retention interval, participants completed several individual differences questionnaires. They then recalled each image from a verbal prompt and re‐rated its quality. Slides rated as extremely valenced and highly arousing were more vividly imaged than neutral slides. Low mood was also associated with more vivid imagery. The influence of stimulus variables was greater in the immediate imagery phase; that of individual differences tended to be greater in the delayed imagery phase. Of 29 participants, 7 reported intrusive memories of highly unpleasant stimuli at 1 year follow‐up.     

不同延时条件下的情绪记忆鲜活性

大量研究表明,情绪在一定程度上提高了记忆的准确性,但是情绪对记忆鲜活性的影响更大,该文关注延时条件下情绪记忆鲜活性的研究。研究采用记得/知道范式,操控图片情绪性和测验延时变量,结果发现情绪记忆的记得成绩好于中性记忆,且在不同延时测验下,正性高唤醒图片的记得成绩下降由慢到快再到慢的变化,负性高唤醒图片的记得下降由快到慢变化,而中性则快速下降。说明情绪记忆更具鲜活性,且是效价在高唤醒下起的作用。     

Emotion and memory: A recognition advantage for positive and negative words independent of arousal

Much evidence indicates that emotion enhances memory, but the precise effects of the two primary factors of arousal and valence remain at issue. Moreover, the current knowledge of emotional memory enhancement is based mostly on small samples of extremely emotive stimuli presented in unnaturally high proportions without adequate affective, lexical, and semantic controls. To investigate how emotion affects memory under conditions of natural variation, we tested whether arousal and valence predicted recognition memory for over 2500 words that were not sampled for their emotionality, and we controlled a large variety of lexical and semantic factors. Both negative and positive stimuli were remembered better than neutral stimuli, whether arousing or calming. Arousal failed to predict recognition memory, either independently or interactively with valence. Results support models that posit a facilitative role of valence in memory. This study also highlights the importance of stimulus controls and experimental designs in research on emotional memory.     

Determinants of the vividness of visual imagery: the effects of delayed recall, stimulus affect and individual differences

This study investigated the influence of emotion on vividness of imagery. A total of 80 undergraduate participants saw 25 pictures from the International Affective Picture System, representing different dimensions of valence and arousal. They rated each stimulus for valence, arousal, and emotionality. Each stimulus was then presented again, and participants formed an image of it, rating the image for vividness, valence, arousal, and emotionality. During a 15-minute retention interval, participants completed several individual differences questionnaires. They then recalled each image from a verbal prompt and re-rated its quality. Slides rated as extremely valenced and highly arousing were more vividly imaged than neutral slides. Low mood was also associated with more vivid imagery. The influence of stimulus variables was greater in the immediate imagery phase; that of individual differences tended to be greater in the delayed imagery phase. Of 29 participants, 7 reported intrusive memories of highly unpleasant stimuli at 1 year follow-up.     

Blinded by emotion: target misses follow attention capture by arousing distractors in RSVP

Participants are usually able to search rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) streams and report a single target, given that RSVP distractors do not typically deplete attention required for target identification. Here, participants performed single target search, but the target was preceded by a to-be-ignored distractor varying in valence and arousal. When the critical distractor was a sexual word, lower target accuracy was observed, particularly at short distractor-target stimulus onset asynchronies, even when participants were shown the critical distractors beforehand and told to ignore them. No reduction in target accuracy was evidenced when the critical distractor was negative, positive, threatening, or emotionally neutral. Target accuracy was predicted by participants' arousal ratings to the critical distractor words and by their memory for them, but not by their valence ratings. Memory for critical distractors mediated the relationship between arousal and target accuracy. The results provide evidence that arousing sexual words involuntarily capture attention and enter awareness at the expense of goal-driven targets, at least in the context of laboratory experiments performed by young university participants for whom sexual material might have high impact and relevance.     

A Novel Demonstration of Enhanced Memory Associated with Emotional Arousal

The relationship between emotional arousal and long-term memory is addressed in two experiments in which subjects viewed either a relatively emotionally neutral short story (presented as a brief slide show) or a closely matched but more emotionally arousing story and were tested for retention of the story 2 weeks later. Experiment 1 provides essential replication of the results of Heuer and Reisberg (1990) and illustrates the common interpretive problem posed by the use of different stimuli (slides) in the neutral versus emotional stories. In Experiment 2, identical slides (and sequence) were used in both the neutral and arousal stores. Two different stories were created by varying the narration that accompanied each slide. In both experiments, subjects who viewed the arousal story both experienced a greater emotional reaction to the story than did the subjects who viewed the neutral story, and subsequently exhibited enhanced memory for the story. Subjects in Experiment 2 who viewed the arousal story also recalled more slides than did the subjects who viewed the neutral story. This effect was greatest for story phase 2, the phase in which the emotional slide narration occurred. Because this enhanced retention of the story slides cannot be explained by any differences in the slides themselves, the results provide new evidence to support the contention that emotional arousal influences long-term memory in normal human subjects.     

Memory for emotionally arousing stimuli: a comparison of younger and older adults

The authors compared emotional memory in younger (aged 18-32 years) and older (aged 59-84 years) adults. Previous researchers who investigated the emotionmemory relationship in younger adults consistently showed that emotional arousal enhances memory for central detail. The present authors' goal was to determine whether a similar effect could be found with older adults. Younger and older adults viewed a series of 12 slides, accompanied by a taped narrative, that showed emotionally arousing or neutral scenes in the middle phase (Slides 5-8). Participants then completed recognition tests that were scored for central detail, peripheral detail, and gist. The results indicated that, although younger adults showed higher performance than older adults did, both groups showed increased memory for central detail. In contrast, the authors found no such enhancement for peripheral detail or gist in either group. These results indicated that the arousal manipulation produced a similar effect on memory in younger and older adults. Furthermore, these results were consistent with the notion of poststimulus elaboration, which is the continued processing of central detail after the termination of an arousing event.     

Trade-offs in visual attention and the enhancement of memory specificity for positive and negative emotional stimuli

Emotional influences on memory can lead to trade-offs in memory for gist or detail and trade-offs in memory for central or peripheral aspects of an event. Attentional narrowing has often been proposed as a theoretical explanation for this pattern of findings with negative emotion. These trade-offs have been less extensively investigated with positive emotion. In three experiments, we investigate memory for specific visual details of positive and negative stimuli, examine central–peripheral trade-offs in memory, and assess the hypothesis that attentional narrowing contributes to emotional enhancement of memory specificity. We found that memory for details was enhanced by negative and positive emotion. Central–peripheral trade-offs were found in memory for negative emotional stimuli but not in memory for positive emotional stimuli. These trade-offs with negative emotion were associated with attentional narrowing at the time of encoding, as measured by eye movements. There were no attentional effects at the time of encoding found with positive emotional stimuli. Evidence was found for the attentional narrowing hypothesis of memory specificity and central–peripheral trade-offs in memory for negative emotional events. Alternative explanations for the positive emotional enhancement of memory specificity are required.     

The moderating effects of stimulus valence and arousal on memory suppression

This study examined the separate and combined effects of stimulus valence and arousal on retrieval inhibition. Participants performed Anderson and Green's (2001) memory suppression task with stimuli varying across dimensions of valence and arousal. Memory was tested through free and cued recall as well as speeded recognition. Results showed that both stimulus valence and arousal influenced the extent to which participants successfully inhibited retrieval, but not in the ways anticipated. Specifically, the strongest inhibition effects were for highly arousing, pleasant words. In addition, unpleasant stimuli that were suppressed were better recalled during both cued and free-recall tasks than pleasant stimuli that were suppressed. Across all tests of memory performance, there were no significant differences between the experimental conditions for highly arousing, unpleasant words. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Neurophysiological indices of free recall memory biases in major depression: The impact of stimulus arousal and valence

This study examined differential impact of the valence and arousal characteristics of stimuli on memory biases and brain activity in major depressive disorder (MDD) and non-depressed control participants. P300 and slow wave (SW) components of the event-related brain potential (ERP) were recorded in 18 MDD and 18 control individuals during the encoding of positive and negative, high and low arousal words in a free recall task. Control participants demonstrated expected enhanced memory for positive stimuli that was accompanied by a corresponding increase in SW ERP components. These effects were not seen in the MDD participants. Rather, memory biases for negative information in MDD were only observed for low arousal words and were not reflected in ERP amplitudes. This study suggests that the inconsistency in the MDD memory bias literature may be related to the arousing nature of the stimuli incorporated in the study.     

Distinct parietal sites mediate the influences of mood,arousal, and their interaction on human recognition memory

The two dimensions of emotion, mood valence and arousal, have independent effects on recognition memory. At present, however, it is not clear how those effects are reflected in the human brain. Previous research in this area has generally dealt with memory for emotionally valenced or arousing stimuli, but the manner in which interacting mood and arousal states modulate responses in memory substrates remains poorly understood. We investigated memory for emotionally neutral items while independently manipulating mood valence and arousal state by means of music exposure. Four emotional conditions were created: positive mood/high arousal, positive mood/low arousal, negative mood/high arousal, and negative mood/low arousal. We observed distinct effects of mood valence and arousal in parietal substrates of recognition memory. Positive mood increased activity in ventral posterior parietal cortex (PPC) and orbitofrontal cortex, whereas arousal condition modulated activity in dorsal PPC and the posterior cingulate. An interaction between valence and arousal was observed in left ventral PPC, notably in a parietal area distinct from the those identified for the main effects, with a stronger effect of mood on recognition memory responses here under conditions of relative high versus low arousal. We interpreted the PPC activations in terms of the attention-to-memory hypothesis: Increased arousal may lead to increased top-down control of memory, and hence dorsal PPC activation, whereas positive mood valence may result in increased activity in ventral PPC regions associated with bottom-up attention to memory. These findings indicate that distinct parietal sites mediate the influences of mood, arousal, and their interplay during recognition memory.     

情绪效价的记忆增强效应:存储或提取优势?

情绪效价和情绪唤醒是描述情绪的两个维度。情绪增强记忆效应表明情绪唤醒事件的记忆往往优于非情绪唤醒事件的记忆,但关于积极情绪记忆和消极情绪记忆哪个在记忆中处于优势仍存在争论。实验以情绪词对和中性词对为实验材料。实验一探讨积极情绪词语或消极情绪词语的记忆优势; 实验二探讨积极情绪环境或消极情绪环境中中性词语的记忆优势。在两种实验条件下,积极情绪下的自由回忆都优于消极情绪下的自由回忆; 多项加工树的存储—提取模型使用实验自由回忆和线索回忆的结果将记忆的存储和提取优势分离开来,结果表明:积极情绪事件记忆优势发生在存储阶段,而积极情绪环境记忆优势发生在存储和提取阶段; 积极情绪事件记忆偏向支持“刺激后编码增强假设”,积极情绪环境记忆偏向支持“唤醒—偏向竞争假设”。     

Enhanced selective memory consolidation following post-learning pleasant and aversive arousal

It is well established that emotions modulate memory, typically enhancing consolidation through post-learning arousal. However, many aspects of this phenomenon have yet to be delineated. For example, it remains unclear whether or not the type of arousal is relevant (pleasant vs. aversive), whether arousal enhances memory selectively for some stimuli but not others (emotional vs. neutral), which specific aspects of the stimulus representation (gist vs. detail) are affected, and whether these mechanisms are sexually dimorphic. In order to explore these issues, 178 undergraduate participants viewed a series of negative, positive and neutral pictures. They were then subjected to a post-learning arousal manipulation in the form of a pleasantly arousing-, aversively arousing-, or neutral video. Free recall tests one week later indicated that both pleasant and aversive post-learning arousal enhanced memory consolidation for positive and negative but not neutral stimuli, independent of the participants' sex. Further analysis for gist and detail aspects suggests that post-learning arousal enhances memory for the gist of the stimuli. The study has implications for the understanding of healthy and pathological cognitive-affective processes in humans.     

过犹不及：情绪的效价-唤醒度冲突在动机倾向上的分离

本研究通过两个实验考察不同效价度和唤醒度的情绪刺激是否存在动机倾向上的分离模式。实验1要求被试对表情图片的动机倾向（趋近/回避）进行主观评分,发现被试对低唤醒表情或积极表情有更加趋近的倾向。实验2以运动的线索启动动机倾向（趋近/回避）,完成情绪词效价判断任务,从内隐的角度考察情绪刺激是否存在动机倾向上的分离模式,结果发现,被试对动机倾向一致的情绪刺激的反应时更快。趋近的消极情绪词比趋近的积极情绪词的N2波幅更大,远离的低唤醒情绪词比趋近的低唤醒情绪词的LPC波幅更大。结果说明积极或者低唤醒的情绪刺激引发趋近倾向,而消极或高唤醒的情绪刺激引发回避倾向。     

Eyewitness memory for arousing events: putting things into context

If attention is focused on central details at high levels of arousal, memory for peripheral details should be diminished (Easterbrook, 1959 ). If this is the case, contextual reinstatement (CR) procedures should not enhance memory because these procedures specifically use peripheral information to cue memory. The present experiment tested how arousal influenced eyewitness memory for an event and how it interacts with CR procedures. Participants first viewed one of three series of slides (neutral, arousal, or unusual/control). Memory for central and peripheral details was tested via photo lineups and recognition tests. Although CR procedures enhanced recognition memory for non‐arousing and unusual events, they did not affect recognition memory for arousing events. Analyses of the peripheral photo lineup and peripheral recognition test data revealed that CR enhanced the hit rate for the neutral and unusual conditions but not for the arousal condition. Although CR procedures tended to enhance recognition of central information (increasing the hit rate and decreasing the false alarm rate), CR had a smaller enhancement effect in the arousal condition relative to the neutral and unusual conditions. The present experiment also replicates the Christianson and Loftus ( 1991 ) finding that peripheral information is not remembered as well in an arousing event, as compared to memory of neutral and unusual events. The theoretical and applied implications of these results are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

More than a feeling: Emotional cues impact the access and experience of autobiographical memories

Remembering is impacted by several factors of retrieval, including the emotional content of a memory cue. Here we tested how musical retrieval cues that differed on two dimensions of emotion—valence (positive and negative) and arousal (high and low)—impacted the following aspects of autobiographical memory recall: the response time to access a past personal event, the experience of remembering (ratings of memory vividness), the emotional content of a cued memory (ratings of event arousal and valence), and the type of event recalled (ratings of event energy, socialness, and uniqueness). We further explored how cue presentation affected autobiographical memory retrieval by administering cues of similar arousal and valence levels in a blocked fashion to one half of the tested participants, and randomly to the other half. We report three main findings. First, memories were accessed most quickly in response to musical cues that were highly arousing and positive in emotion. Second, we observed a relation between a cue and the elicited memory’s emotional valence but not arousal; however, both the cue valence and arousal related to the nature of the recalled event. Specifically, high cue arousal led to lower memory vividness and uniqueness ratings, but cues with both high arousal and positive valence were associated with memories rated as more social and energetic. Finally, cue presentation impacted both how quickly and specifically memories were accessed and how cue valence affected the memory vividness ratings. The implications of these findings for views of how emotion directs the access to memories and the experience of remembering are discussed.