Do tests facilitate decision‐making performance on a transfer task?

Testing can improve later recall of information. However, much less is known about the potential use of testing in promoting the transfer of learning. In this study, we investigated whether testing improves decision‐making performance on a transfer task in a sample of 98 university students using a between‐subjects design. After studying several statements about a fictional disease under different learning conditions (restudy, free recall, and multiple‐choice), participants were asked to recall this information and subsequently make medical decisions concerning the fictional disease (i.e., the transfer task). The present study found no advantage of testing conditions over restudy condition on the 30‐min delayed memory task. However, participants in the active retrieval practice (i.e., free recall) group performed significantly better on the transfer task over those in both restudy and multiple‐choice groups. These results suggest free‐recall tests promote the transfer of learning.     

Study for now,but judge for later: Delayed judgments of learning promote long‐term retention

Larsson Sundqvist, M., Todorov, I., Kubik, V. & Jönsson, F.U. (2012) Study for now, but judge for later: Delayed judgments of learning promote long‐term retention. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 53, 450–454. Delayed judgments of learning (JOL) are assumed to be based on covert retrieval attempts. A common finding is that testing memory during learning improves later retention (i.e., the testing effect), and even more so than an equivalent amount of study, but only after a longer retention interval. To test the assertion that also delayed JOLs improve memory, the participants either studied Swahili‐Swedish word pairs four times, or they both studied (two times) and performed delayed JOLs (two times) alternately. Final cued recall test were given after either five minutes or one week. Results showed a reliable learning‐group by retention‐interval interaction, with less forgetting in the group that alternated between studying and making JOLs. The results are discussed in relation to the self‐fulfilling prophecy account of Spellman and Bjork (1992) , and in terms of study advice, the results further underscore the importance of delaying JOLs when studying and evaluating one’s ongoing learning.     

学习方式的变革:提取促进学习

提取练习效应是指在学习与最终测验之间,等长时间的提取练习与重复学习相比,前者更能促进长时记忆的保持,也称为测试效应。大量研究表明提取测试是一种高效的学习策略,师生却对此认识不足,认为测试只是检测学习效果的评估工具,并不能改变或促进学习。本文主要从提取练习促进学习的认知神经加工机制、提取练习在实践应用中的特点、提高提取练习效应的方法及其在教学实践中的局限四方面梳理了相关研究,为提取练习广泛应用于教学实践提供支持,同时也为师生正确高效利用这一策略提供了参考,使学生获得更高效和持久的学习。     

提取学习有利于学习与记忆的认知神经基础

研究表明提取学习相比简单重复学习更加益于记忆的保持。近期的脑成像研究发现, 与简单重复学习相比, 提取学习时前额叶、顶下叶、颞叶及一些皮层下结构的脑激活更大, 这些脑区的激活也能预测随后的记忆成绩。这些研究表明, 在更多认知资源的投入和工作记忆系统的参与下, 提取学习是一个获得、加工、整合和巩固语义关系的过程。提取学习充分调用认知和情感、皮层与皮层下机能, 同时还发挥语义和情景记忆优势来促进学习与记忆。     

测试效应：致力于有效学习的基础研究

学习与记忆研究领域关于测试效应的研究重新审视了“测试”的作用。测试除了是衡量学习程度的工具,它对学习的作用相当于甚至大于同等时间的“学习”;相对于重复学习,测试使学习者对学习的元认知判断更准确;学习过程中的自我测试虽然可能延缓学习的进程,但却可促进有效学习。课堂小测或培养学生自我测试策略有助于其知识更好地保持于长时记忆中。     

Effects of retrieval practice and presentation modality on verbal learning: testing the limits of the testing effect

ABSTRACT

The testing effect refers to improved memory after retrieval practice and has been researched primarily with visual stimuli. In two experiments, we investigated whether the testing effect can be replicated when the to-be-learned information is presented auditorily, or visually?+?auditorily. Participants learned Swahili-English word pairs in one of three presentation modalities – visual, auditory, or visual?+?auditory. This was manipulated between-participants in Experiment 1 and within-participants in Experiment2. All participants studied the word pairs during three study trials. Half of participants practiced recalling the English translations in response to the Swahili cue word twice before the final test whereas the other half simply studied the word pairs twice more. Results indicated an improvement in final test performance in the repeated test condition, but only in the visual presentation modality (Experiments 1 and 2) and in the visual?+?auditory presentation modality (Experiment 2). This suggests that the benefits of practiced retrieval may be limited to information presented in a visual modality.     

空间路线学习中的前向测试效应

空间路线信息学习中的前向测试效应及其机制有待检验。研究以虚拟背景下的住宅小区为实验材料,要求被试学习同一场景4个方向的路线信息(实验1)以及4个不同场景(实验2)的路线信息。结果表明,在路线1～3的测试中,同一场景下路线信息相似性高,“隔离”干扰的难度大,在测试过程中的干扰率高于不同场景的路线信息。在路线4的测试中,两个实验中测试组的回忆正确率均显著高于重学组,干扰率则显著低于重学组,出现了前向测试效应。这些发现表明,测试可以通过“隔离”来自先前学习信息的前摄干扰来增强后续空间信息的学习。研究结果揭示了空间路线学习中的前向测试效应及其机制,支持前摄抑制减少理论,证实了前向测试效应在生活中具有广阔的应用性。     

测验效应的内部机制——基于情景背景理论的视角

测验效应指提取比同等时间的重复学习,在随后的记忆测验中有更好的成绩。多数理论从提取角度解释该现象。近些年,精细提取理论得到诸多研究支持,但2014年,Karpicke等人提出的情景背景理论,对测验激活语义关联信息的解释提出质疑,认为被试在提取模式中对先前时间背景信息的复原是测验效应形成的关键。本文比较了测验效应研究的最新理论,结合提取加工的研究方法和成果,从提取模式、提取方向的角度解释了测验效应的内在机制。     

提取练习效应的产生机制:编码、提取的整合演变

提取练习效应指相比同等时间的重复学习,对所学材料进行提取练习(即使无反馈)可使被试在之后的回忆测验中表现更好。早期研究从编码或提取单维度地对提取练习效应进行了描述性解释,新近以来,研究者整合了编码和提取在提取练习效应中的作用,从记忆加工全过程的角度考察了提取练习效应的产生机制,并得到诸多研究证据的支持。论文梳理了提取练习效应产生机制的各类假说,并重点分析比较了精细提取假说和情景背景假说,指出后者在解释提取练习效应上的优势。未来研究可结合认知神经科学的研究技术为情景背景假说提供更直接的证据,有关提取练习对于短期和长期记忆促进效果的争议也有待进一步解释厘清,同时如何在揭示其原理的基础上将其更高效地加以应用亦有待实践探索。     

提取过程越久记忆保持越好吗？材料难度的调节作用

提取练习效应揭示了提取对记忆保持的关键意义;学习时间分配的有关研究表明提取练习效应的大小可能与材料难度有关。两个实验探讨了提取时间与材料难度对提取练习效应的影响：实验1采用2（提取时间：短,长）×2（材料难度：容易,困难）的混合设计,5分钟后测查记忆保持水平。实验2采用类似设计,将最终测试间隔延长至24小时。结果发现,⑴ 延长提取时间均提高了记忆成绩和记忆保持率。⑵ 即时测试条件下,提取时间较短时,不同难度材料的记忆成绩差异不显著;提取时间较长时,困难材料的记忆成绩高于容易材料;困难材料的记忆保持率在不同提取时间下均高于容易材料。⑶ 延迟测试条件下,无论提取时间长短,困难材料的记忆成绩及保持率均高于容易材料。研究表明,延长提取时间对提取练习效应的影响受材料难度的调节;情境背景和必要难度是解释该调节作用的可能理论框架。     

提取难度对困难材料提取练习效应的促进作用:来自行为和fNIRS的证据

提取练习效应(Retrieval Practice Effect, RPE)的研究揭示了提取直接促进记忆保持和间接促进后续学习(重学)的关键作用。研究表明, 材料难度和提取难度是影响RPE的重要因素, 但以往研究未具体区分二者对提取练习直接和间接效应的影响。实验1采用2 (词对难度:简单, 困难) × 2 (提取支持:无, 有)的混合实验设计, 考察材料难度和提取难度对提取练习直接效应的影响。实验2引入提取后重学因素, 结合行为实验和fNIRS技术区分了材料难度和提取难度对提取练习两种效应的影响。结果发现, 相比有提取支持条件, 无提取支持条件下提取时颞上回脑区(与提取难度关联)的激活显著增强, 且前额皮层脑区(与加工深度关联)在重学阶段表现出更高的激活水平, 显著提高了最终记忆成绩。困难词对的提取练习效应弱于简单词对, 但无提取支持条件下重学困难词对时, 前额叶皮层脑区的激活水平显著更高, 有效促进了困难词对提取后的重学效果(记忆成绩显著提高)。以上发现表明, 提高提取难度增强了提取练习的直接和间接效应; 提取有助于促进困难材料的后续学习, 且增加提取难度有助于增强困难材料提取练习的间接效应。     

Self-generated retrievals while multitasking improve memory for names

We used a translational research paradigm to investigate whether distributed retrievals could benefit name learning in social situations. Undergraduates (N=64) were trained to generate distributed retrievals while they were multitasking. Students learned to generate distributed retrievals according to either an expanding or a uniform schedule. Their self-generated distributed retrievals while they were multitasking were effective in improving name recall for both retrieval schedules. The increase with self-generated retrievals while multitasking was greater (η²=.76) than the increase that Helder and Shaughnessy (2008 Helder, E. and Shaughnessy, J. J. 2008. Retrieval opportunities while multitasking improve name recall. Memory, 16: 896–909. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) found with experimenter-controlled retrievals while multitasking (η²=.42). These findings provide evidence that the beneficial effect of distributed retrievals can extend to learning names in a social situation.