Borderline personality disorder from the perspective of general personality functioning

The authors extended previous work on the hypothesis that borderline personality disorder (BPD) can be understood as a maladaptive variant of personality traits included within the 5-factor model (FFM) of personality. In each of 3 samples, an empirically derived prototypic FFM borderline profile was correlated with individuals' FFM profiles to yield a similarity score, an FFM borderline index. Results across all samples indicated that the FFM borderline index correlated as highly with existing borderline measures as they correlated with one another, and the FFM borderline index correlated as highly with measures of dysfunction, history of childhood abuse, and parental psychopathology as did traditional measures of BPD. Findings support the hypothesis that BPD is a maladaptive variant of FFM personality traits.     

A Person-Centered Approach to P-E Fit Questions Using a Multiple-Trait Model

The current study first longitudinally examines the validity of person-environment (P-E) RIASEC congruence, adopting a job analytic method to assess the environment and using P-E difference scores to compute congruence, to predict a range of intrinsic career outcomes—including job satisfaction, skill development, work involvement, and perceived stress—in a sample of 401 college seniors involved in the labor market. Second, the incremental validity of an alternative conceptualization of the P component (i.e., the Five-Factor Model of personality [FFM]) is examined over and beyond RIASEC congruence scores. Congruence across RIASEC types significantly predicted job satisfaction and skill development, but FFM traits significantly and substantially contributed to the prediction of all intrinsic career outcomes. Finally, a person-centered perspective to P-E questions is introduced, demonstrating that cluster analysis of individuals' FFM scores resulted in two clusters (i.e., internalizers/externalizers and resilients) showing very different positions on the labor market and reporting differing initial career outcomes. It is concluded that RIASEC P-E fit congruence studies should be complemented with FFM assessment to increase predictive validity. Applications of an FFM-based, person-centered approach in I/O and P-E fit research and practice are discussed.     

A comparative study of the dimensions and facets of the five-factor model in the diagnosis of cases of personality disorder

Two national samples of psychologists (n = 92, n = 89) rated personality disorder cases using either the five factors (domains) or the 30 facets of the five-factor model (FFM) to examine reliability and clinical utility of the model when used as a diagnostic tool. The cases were prototypic and nonprototypic cases representing the three clusters of personality disorders in the DSM-IV. Although confidence was higher using the factors rather than the facets to rate the cases, interrater reliability was similar and the facets were rated more useful for professional communication, case conceptualization, and treatment. Mean ratings for the prototypic cases supported the theorized relationships between those personality disorders and the FFM. Principal components factor analysis of the facet ratings largely replicated the structure of the FFM with only a few facets failing to load with their superordinate dimension in the model. Implications for use of the FFM with personality disorder are discussed.     

A test of the factor structure equivalence of the 50-item IPIP Five-factor model measure across gender and ethnic groups

Personality is frequently assessed in research and applied settings, in part due to evidence that scores on measures of the Five-factor model (FFM) of personality show predictive validity for a variety of outcomes. Although researchers are increasingly using the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP; Goldberg, 1999; International Personality Item Pool, 2007b) FFM measures, investigations of the psychometric properties of these measures are unfortunately sparse. The purpose of this study was to examine the factor structure equivalence of the 50-item IPIP FFM measure across gender and ethnic groups (i.e., Whites, Latinos, Asian Americans) using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis. Results from a sample of 1,727 college students generally support the invariance of the factor structure across groups, although there was some evidence of differences across gender and ethnic groups for model parameters. We discuss these findings and their implications.     

Expanding and Reconceptualizing Aberrant Personality at Work: Validity of Five‐Factor Model Aberrant Personality Tendencies to Predict Career Outcomes

This study proposes and tests an alternative methodology to conceptualize and assess aberrant personality tendencies at work beyond the dark triad. A sample of college alumni (N= 247) were administered the NEO PI‐R prior to entering the labor market and 15 years later when their professional careers had unfolded. Drawing on the dimensional perspective on personality functioning, 6 five‐factor model (FFM) aberrant compounds were computed as indicators of aberrant personality tendencies. As expected, FFM aberrant personality tendencies were highly stable across time, with test–retest correlations ranging from .61 (Narcissistic) to .73 (avoidant). With regard to predictive validity, borderline, schizotypal, and avoidant tendencies were negatively associated with extrinsic and intrinsic career outcomes. The obsessive‐compulsive tendency was largely unrelated to career outcomes, whereas individuals with antisocial and narcissistic characteristics tended toward higher hierarchical and financial attainment. In addition, relative importance analyses indicated that (a) FFM aberrant personality tendencies showed incremental validity in the prediction of career outcomes beyond FFM general traits, and that (b) both FFM general and FFM aberrant personality tendencies are important predictors when considered jointly. It is concluded that FFM aberrant personality tendencies suggest interesting avenues for personnel psychologists to form new linear combinations of FFM facets, complementing FFM general domains.     

Early maladaptive schemas of personality disorder subtypes.

This investigation attempted to examine the cognitive schemas of five distinct clusters that emerged from a cluster analysis of the personality disorder scales of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-II (Millon, 1987). Specifically, the degree to which early maladaptive schemas, as measured by the Cognitive Schema Questionnaire-Short Form (Young, 1994), could correctly identify empirically derived patterns of personality disorders was examined. Between-cluster differences centered on five personality components and five schemas. Discriminant analyses revealed two significant functions composed of cognitive schemas, which correctly identified 61.2% of the entire sample in terms of cluster group membership. The total proportion of variance in the two significant functions associated with cluster group differences was 76.8%. Findings are discussed in relation to the domain theory of personality disorders posited by Millon and Davis (1996).     

The HEXACO and five-factor models of personality in relation to RIASEC vocational interests

The current study extended the empirical research on the overlap of vocational interests and personality by (a) testing hypothesized relations between RIASEC interests and the personality dimensions of the HEXACO model, and (b) exploring the HEXACO personality model's predictive advantage over the five-factor model (FFM) in capturing RIASEC interests. Results of correlations based on a sample of 437 college students (157 men and 280 women) revealed support for eight of 21 hypothesized HEXACO–RIASEC relations for men and nine of 21 for women. Results of multiple regressions revealed that HEXACO accounted for more variance in RIASEC interests than did the FFM, and that HEXACO accounted for significant incremental variance beyond that explained by the FFM in four of six RIASEC interests for men and in five of six RIASEC interests for women.     

The relationship between maladaptive personality functioning and problematic technology use in adolescence: A cluster analysis approach

In the last two decades, scientific research has explored the problematic use of internet, videogames and mobile phones. However, there is still little consistent knowledge regarding the co-occurrence of problematic technology use and the role of maladaptive personality characteristics in adolescence. The present study aimed to investigate adolescents' styles of technology use with a cluster analysis approach focusing on personality functioning. The sample comprised 408 Italian adolescents (46.3% males) aged 11 to 18 years (M _age = 13.80; SD = 2.08). Data were collected using the Internet Addiction Test, the Videogame Dependency Scale, the Test of Mobile-Phone Dependence Brief Form and the Personality Inventory for DSM5 Brief Form. Results provided a four-cluster solution based on the co-occurrence of problematic technology use. The four clusters were labeled as follows: cluster 1: “Above average internet and mobile-phone use”; cluster 2: “Below average technology use”; cluster 3: “Above average videogame use”; and cluster 4: “Problematic technology use.” Analyses on demographic variables (e.g., gender and age) demonstrated significant differences between the four groups. Adolescents with high levels of problematic technology use reported greater overall personality dysfunction than the other three groups. This finding supported our hypothesis on maladaptive personality functioning in adolescents at risk for addiction. Finally, the Antagonism domain played a specific role in differentiating the severity of adolescents' involvement in technology use. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings and to plan preventive interventions as well as therapeutic treatments.     

Predicting adult involvement in crime: Personality measures are significant,socio-economic measures are not

Comprehensive research into criminal careers along with the growing consensus around the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality traits have re-established personality measures as important predictors of criminal activity. A number of studies of specialist groups have concluded that agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and extraversion are linked to crime. Data were drawn from the National Child Development Study. Experiencing a criminal justice sanction in mid-adulthood was regressed on FFM traits, Agreeableness, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Intellect and Emotional Stability (Neuroticism), as well as socio-economic variables linked by criminologists to crime. Results indicated that significant predictors in this representative sample of 7205 adults, were four of the five personality traits (but not Intellect), gender, experience of school problems, but none of the socio-economic measures. This is consistent with the evidence that social class has only a minor role in predicting criminality, contrary to previous assumptions.     

MCMI-II profiles of women with eating disorders: a cluster analytic investigation

A three-factor model of personality pathology was investigated in a clinical sample of 183 female patients in an outpatient eating disorders treatment program. Cluster analysis of MCMI-II personality scales (Millon, 1987) yielded three distinct personality profiles, which were consistent with previous studies. First, 16.9% of the sample comprised a High Functioning cluster, which manifested no clinical elevations on the MCMI-II and had significantly lower scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner; 1991) scales than the other two clusters. Second, 49.1% of the sample comprised an Undercontrolled/Dysregulated cluster. Finally, the remaining 34% of the sample comprised an Overcontrolled/Avoidant cluster. This final cluster had significantly higher EDI Ineffectiveness scale scores than the Undercontrolled/Dysregulated cluster group. Cluster membership was not associated with eating disorder subtype, suggesting that there is considerable variance in personality pathology within eating disorder diagnostic categories.     

The Five-Factor Model of Personality at the Facet Level: Association with Antisocial Personality Disorder Symptoms and Prediction of Antisocial Behavior

The association between the Five-Factor Model of personality (FFM) and antisocial personality disorder (APD) symptoms was investigated in a sample of young males with a history of severe antisocial behavior. Results were compared against those of an expert-consensus study (Lynam and Widiger Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110:401–412, 2001) and those of a recent meta-analysis (Samuel and Widiger Clinical Psychology Review 28:1326–1342, 2008) based primarily on non-antisocial samples. A high degree of similarity was observed across the three. Multivariate analysis indicated two FFM facets, Compliance and Activity, to be associated with APD symptoms. The contribution of these facets to the prospective prediction of antisocial behavior over and above that of APD symptoms and past antisocial behavior was evaluated. Compliance alone explained 8.7% of the unique variance in future antisocial behavior.     

The relationship between five-factor personality measurements and ICD-10 personality disorder dimensions: results from a sample of 229 subjects

This article examines the relationship between the five-factor model (FFM) and dimensional ICD-10 personality disorders. In a follow-up study of a child and adolescent psychiatric cohort, former patients and controls were assessed with NEO-FFI and the IPDE interview (CD-10 personality disorder). Full data were available for 229 subjects (149 former patients, 80 controls). Multiple regression analysis showed that the five factors of the FFM as independent variables explained between 5% (schizoid personality disorder) and 32% (anxious personality disorder) of the variance of ICD-10 dimensional personality disorder scores. For the two types of emotionally unstable personality disorder dimension (impulsive and borderline), for anxious (avoidant) personality disorder dimension and for the total score of any personality disorder dimension, FFM explained between 17% and 32% of the variance with almost identical results for the former patient group and the control group. High neuroticism was a feature of paranoid, emotionally unstable, histrionic, anankastic, anxious (avoidant), and dependent personality disorder dimensions, whereas low agreeableness was found in dissocial, emotionally unstable and histrionic personality disorder dimensions. Low extraversion was found in schizoid, anxious (avoidant) and dependent personality disorder dimensions, whereas histrionic PD dimension correlated with high extraversion. We find that the FFM is valuable for the further understanding not only of DSM-IV but also of ICD-10 personality disorder dimensions. The differences between ICD-10 and DSM-IV in this respect seem to be small.     

Adolescent Psychopathy and the Five Factor Model: Domain and Facet Analysis

Given the consideration of callousness as a specifier for Conduct Disorder in the DSM-V, it seems imperative that researchers continue to investigate this personality style in adolescents to determine both its applicability and utility. The present study examined the Youth Psychopathic traits Inventory (YPI; Andershed et al. 2002) and the Interpersonal Adjective Scale Revised-Big 5 (IASR-B5; Trapnell and Wiggins 1990a, b) psychopathy scales in relation to the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality. Using a sample of adolescent offenders (N = 145), the YPI and IASR-B5 psychopathy scales showed adequate reliability and strong inverse bivariate relations with the FFM domains of Agreeableness (−A) and Conscientiousness (−C). Multivariate analyses, at the facet level, revealed that Tendermindedness (−A) and Assertiveness (+E) explained the association between FFM facets and the YPI, whereas Altruism (−A), Modesty (−A), Straightforwardness (−A), Assertiveness (+E), Warmth (−E), and Deliberation (+C) all uniquely contributed to the IASR-B5 psychopathy scale. Both measures were linked with general and violent recidivism. The authors discuss the implications of these findings in terms of the use of personality to help describe conduct problem youth and the need for future research in this important area.     

Normative and Maladaptive Personality Trait Models of Mood,Psychotic, and Substance Use Disorders

The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) is a questionnaire developed to assess the five domains represented in the alternative model for personality disorders proposed in Section III of the DSM-5. This study examined the ability of the PID-5 to distinguish between different mental disorders compared to a questionnaire measure of the five-factor model (FFM) of normative personality. The study included the administration of the PID-5 and Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R), a measure of the FFM, to treatment-seeking individuals with Depressive, Bipolar, Psychotic, and Alcohol Use Disorders (AUD). Diagnostic groups were compared at the domain level of PID-5 and NEO PI-R, with sex and age as covariates. The main findings on the PID-5 included higher Detachment scores for Bipolar and Depressive Disorders than Psychotic and AUDs, lower Psychoticism/higher Disinhibition scores for the AUD group compared to all other groups, and lower Negative Affect for the Psychotic Disorders versus AUD group. On the NEO PI-R, the AUD diagnostic group was associated with lower Conscientiousness and Agreeableness scores compared to all other groups, and lower Neuroticism scores than the Bipolar and Depressive groups. Group pairwise comparisons did not appear to show many differences between the PID-5 and NEO PI-R. The results suggest that the alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders may have clinical utility in distinguishing personality profiles between diagnostic groups. These findings emphasize the importance of additional research on the capacity of maladaptive personality to contribute to the assessment of differential diagnoses.     

Relation between alexithymia and the five-factor model of personality: a facet-level analysis

The relation between alexithymia and both the domain and the facet level of the five-factor model (FFM) of personality was examined in a sample of 101 university students by using the Twenty-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20; Bagby, Taylor, & Parker, 1994) and the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992c). Consistent with the alexithymia construct, the TAS-20 was positively correlated with Neuroticism (N) and negatively correlated with Extraversion (E) and Openness (O), whereas no significant relations were found with Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C). Analysis of the lower order traits (i.e., facets) of the FFM revealed that depression for N; positive emotions and assertiveness for E; feelings and actions for O; altruism, tender-mindedness, and modesty for A; and competence for C predicted alexithymia. These results support the uniqueness of the alexithymia construct, which is represented by a cluster of traits across the dimensions and facets of the FFM.     

Phobic tendency within the Five-Factor and HEXACO models of personality structure

Recent research has indicated that the various specific phobias are only modestly correlated with the personality dimensions of the Big Five or Five-Factor Model (B5/FFM). We tested the hypothesis that the specific phobias would be more strongly associated with the dimensions of an alternative framework, the HEXACO model of personality structure. Self-reports on the Phobic Stimuli Response Scales (PSRS) were obtained along with self- and peer reports on measures of the B5/FFM and HEXACO dimensions from a sample of 248 non-clinical participants. The PSRS variables assessing specific phobias showed stronger correlations with the HEXACO Emotionality factor than with any B5/FFM dimension, and a stronger multiple correlation with the HEXACO factors than with the B5/FFM dimensions. Findings were similar across self- and peer reports of the personality variables. The results suggest that phobic tendency can be understood in terms of normal personality variation as conceptualized in the HEXACO framework.     

The Shedler and Westen Assessment Procedure from the perspective of general personality structure

The Shedler and Westen Assessment Procedure (SWAP-200; J. Shedler & D. Westen, 2004) has received increasing support as a dimensional model of personality pathology. However, only 1 prior study has related empirically the SWAP-200 with any other measure of personality or personality disorder. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether the SWAP-200 personality disorder and personality dimension scales relate meaningfully to the domains and facets of the five-factor model (FFM; J. M. Digman, 1990) of general personality structure. Individuals (n = 94) with significant personality pathology were described on instruments of general personality and personality pathology. The results of the current study suggest that most of the SWAP-200 personality and personality disorder scales relate to the domains and facets of the FFM in a manner consistent with FFM theory and previous FFM personality disorder research. Inconsistent findings and limitations are discussed, along with suggestions for future research.