Whites' and Asian Americans' Perceptions of Asian Americans as Targets of Affirmative Action1

Although Asian Americans are technically a protected group, perceptions of Asian Americans as targets of affirmative action are largely unexplored, as are the attitudes of Asian Americans toward affirmative action. This study compared Whites' (N = 142) and Asian Americans' (N = 85) perceptions of workplace‐related discrimination and affirmative action beneficiary status for Asian Americans, African Americans, and Hispanic Americans. Whites and Asian Americans agreed that Asian Americans experience less adverse impact on tests and benefit less from affirmative action than do Blacks or Hispanics. However, Asian Americans were more likely than Whites to perceive that Asian Americans suffer from discrimination and underrepresentation and should benefit from affirmative action.     

Gender differences in young Asian Americans' educational attainments

In this paper, data from the 1986 follow-up of a national probability sample of 1980 high school seniors are examined: (a) to determine whether gender differences exist in the educational attainment of Asian-American youth and compare these differences with those found among other groups (Blacks, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Whites), (b) to confirm that immigrant status and ethnicity account for Asian-American men's and women's educational attainment (as suggested by the literature), and (c) to determine if immigrant status and ethnicity are differentially related to the men's and women's educational attainment. The findings suggest that young Asian-American females reach high levels of educational attainment more quickly than young Asian-American males, and that the differences are particularly noteworthy among immigrants (or the children of immigrants) and Chinese Americans.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, April 1990. The author is grateful to Robert Gardner and Kathleen Berg for their helpful reviews.     

Comparison of white, African American, Hispanic, and Asian children on the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test

This study examined differences between 3 matched samples of White (n = 2,306) and African American (n = 2,306), White (n = 1,176) and Hispanic (n = 1,176), and White (n = 466) and Asian (n = 466) children on the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT; J. A. Naglieri, 1997a). The groups were selected from 22,620 children included in the NNAT standardization sample and matched on geographic region, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and type of school setting (public or private). There was only a small difference between the NNAT scores for the White and African American samples (d ratio = .25) and minimal differences between the White and Hispanic (d ratio = .17) and between the White and Asian (d ratio = .02) groups. The NNAT was moderately correlated with achievement for the total sample and correlated similarly with achievement for the White and ethnic minority groups. The median correlation of NNAT with reading was .52 and NNAT with math was .63 across the samples. Results suggest that the NNAT scores have use for fair assessment of White and minority children.     

Racial identity and reflected appraisals as influences on Asian Americans' racial adjustment

J. E. Helms's (1990) racial identity psychodiagnostic model was used to examine the contribution of racial identity schemas and reflected appraisals to the development of healthy racial adjustment of Asian American university students (N = 188). Racial adjustment was operationally defined as collective self-esteem and awareness of anti-Asian racism. Multiple regression analyses suggested that racial identity schemas and reflected appraisals were significantly predictive of Asian Americans' racial adjustment. Implications for counseling and future research are discussed.     

Associations Among Asian Americans' Enculturation,Emotional Experiences,and Depressive Symptoms

Using a computer‐based text analysis of 218 Asian Americans' writing samples, the authors found that enculturation as well as use of negative emotion and positive emotion words were associated with depressive symptoms. Enculturation was also found to moderate the relation between use of negative emotion words and cognitive‐affective depressive symptoms. Utilizando un análisis de texto computerizado de muestras escritas por 218 individuos Asiático‐americanos, los autores hallaron que la asimilación cultural y el uso de palabras de emoción positivas y negativas están asociadas con síntomas depresivos. También se halló que la asimilación cultural modera la relación entre el uso de palabras de emoción negativas y los síntomas depresivos cognitivo‐afectivos.     

Hispanic counselors' race and accent and Euro Americans' universal-diverse orientation: a study of initial perceptions

This study examined Euro American participants' initial perceptions of male Hispanic counselors. Two hundred twelve college students evaluated male Hispanic counselors whose race was White, Mestizo (a mix of White European and Native American ancestry), or Black and who spoke English with or without a Spanish accent. The participants' perceptions were analyzed in the context of their scores on universal-diverse orientation, a new theory and measure of multicultural awareness (M. L. Miville et al., 1999). Results suggest that participants' perceptions of the Hispanic counselors as attractive, expert, and trustworthy, as well as their willingness to work with them in long-term therapy, were affected by the counselors' race and accent and by the participants' level of universal-diverse orientation. These results are discussed in the context of relevant literature, and recommendations for future research in this area are provided.     

Lay theory of race affects and moderates Asian Americans' responses toward American culture

People may hold different understandings of race that might affect how they respond to the culture of groups deemed to be racially distinct. The present research tests how this process is moderated by the minority individual's lay theory of race. An essentialist lay theory of race (i.e., that race reflects deep-seated, inalterable essence and is indicative of traits and ability) would orient racial minorities to rigidly adhere to their ethnic culture, whereas a social constructionist lay theory of race (i.e., that race is socially constructed, malleable, and arbitrary) would orient racial minorities to identify and cognitively assimilate toward the majority culture. To test these predictions, the authors conducted 4 studies with Asian American participants. The first 2 studies examine the effect of one's lay theory of race on perceived racial differences and identification with American culture. The last 2 studies tested the moderating effect of lay theory of race on identification and assimilation toward the majority American culture after this culture had been primed. The results generally supported the prediction that the social constructionist theory was associated with more perceived similarity between Asians and Americans and more consistent identification and assimilation toward American culture, compared with the essentialist theory.     

African Americans' Racial Identity and Socially Desirable Responding: An Empirical Model

The authors developed a model of the relationships between racial identity development and socially desirable responding, using a sample of African American undergraduate students. Instruments used were the Racial Identity Attitude Scale‐Long Form (J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996) and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (D. L. Paulhus, 1991). The results challenge previous research conclusions regarding social desirability and racial identity development. Implications of findings for researchers, instrument developers, and counselors are included.     

African Americans' Educational Expectations: Longitudinal Causal Models for Women and Men

The long‐term educational development of African American adolescents was investigated using a national longitudinal sample. The dependent variable was the highest level of education that participants ever expected to achieve. These expectations were assessed when participants were 2 years beyond high school. Background variables and family variables were assessed when students were in the 8th grade. High school behavior variables were assessed when students were high school seniors. Path models revealed differing processes for women and men. Overall, effects of early academic performance variables were strongest, followed by effects of family variables and high school behavior variables. Implications for theory and practice are included.     

Demographics,Stigma, and Religious Coping and Christian African Americans' Help Seeking

This study investigated the relationship between demographic characteristics, mental health treatment stigma, religious coping, and help seeking among a sample of 488 Christian African Americans. The results indicated that religious coping, both negative and positive, accounted for a significant portion of variance and explained trends in lifetime counseling attendance above and beyond that explained by demographic characteristics and mental health treatment stigma variables.     

Perceptions of Licensure: A Survey of Michigan Genetic Counselors

This study by the Michigan Genetic Counselor Licensure Committee is the first known published documentation of genetic counselors’ beliefs and attitudes about licensure. The response rate from genetic counselors in Michigan was 66% (41/62). Ninety-five percent of respondents were supportive of licensure. Respondents believed licensure would legitimize genetic counseling as a distinct allied healthcare profession (97.5%), increase the public’s protection (75%), and allow genetic counselors to practice independently (67%). While 45% felt licensure would increase counselor involvement in lawsuits, this did not impact licensure support (p?=?0.744). Opinions were split regarding physician supervision and ordering tests. Even though 28% favored physician supervision, there was overwhelming support for genetic counselors performing some components of genetic testing (95%) and ordering some types of genetic tests (82%) independent of a physician. Use of this survey may be helpful in other states to assess genetic counselors’ interest in licensure and for drafting legislation.     

Effects of Role Expectations on Clients' Perceptions of Disclosing and Nondisclosing Counselors

The authors tested the hypothesis that regardless of whether a counselor self-discloses, a client's perceptions will be more favorable when the counselor's behavior is congruent with the client's precounseling expectations than when the client's expectations and the counselor's behavior are incongruent. Before listening to an excerpted interview, participants (a) were led to expect that counselors self-disclose, (b) were led to expect that counselors do not self-disclose, or (c) were given no expectation regarding counselor self-disclosure. Participants then listened to stimulus audiotapes in which the counselor did or did not reveal personal information. Dependent variables were participants' perceptions of the counselor on three social influence dimensions and two therapeutic relationship dimensions. Results indicated that the disclosing counselor was viewed more favorably than was the nondisclosing counselor, participants' expectations notwithstanding.     

Implicit Coping Responses to Racism Predict African Americans' Level of Psychological Distress

African Americans report experiencing discrimination on a frequent basis, and these experiences have been linked to psychological distress. Coping responses to racism have been suggested to mediate the relationship between discrimination and distress. This study introduces the first measure of African Americans' implicit emotional and coping responses to racism and examines the measure's ability to predict psychological distress. The Go/No-Go Association Task (Nosek &; Banaji, 2001 Nosek , B. A. , &; Banaji , M R. ( 2001 ). The go/no-go association task . Social Cognition , 19 , 625 – 664 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) was adapted to assess African Americans' implicit association of racial prejudice with each of four coping and two emotional responses. Anxiety and general psychological distress were assessed with the Brief Symptom Inventory. Greater implicit association between prejudice and “seeking support” was found to predict lower anxiety and general distress, demonstrating the potential utility of implicit measures in assessing coping responses to racism and their consequences.     

When Sociopolitical Events Strike Cultural Beliefs: Divergent Impact of Hurricane Katrina on African Americans' and European Americans' Endorsement of the Protestant Work Ethic

Three experiments address how people react to a sexual abuse victim compared to a nonvictim when a justification for negative evaluation is available or not available. A harm-doing victim was rated lower on expected job performance and higher on desired social distance than a harm-doing nonvictim. When subsequent harm-doing was absent, judgments of a victim and nonvictim did not differ on expected job performance or social distance. Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1 and revealed that the order in which victimization history and harm-doing information were presented had no effect. Experiment 3 showed that participants desired greater social distance from a harm-doing victim compared to a non-harm-doing victim to the extent they thought the target should have derived benefits from the childhood victimization. Implications for judgments of harm-doers—depending on whether their victimization history is known or not—are considered.     

Perceptions of the Supervisory Relationship: Recovering and Nonrecovering Substance Abuse Counselors

The unique set of dynamics found in the substance abuse field (i.e., recovering and nonrecovering counselors and supervisors) calls for a separate examination of the supervisory relationship within this context. The authors examined differences in counselors' perceptions of the supervisory relationship based on counselor and supervisor recovery status, and the match or mismatch of counselor and supervisor recovery status. Substance abuse counselors (N = 547) working in a statewide public mental health system located in the Southeast rated satisfaction with supervision and reported perceptions of various dimensions of the supervisory relationship. Results of the 2 (counselor recovery status: nonrecovering and recovering) × 2 (supervisor recovery status: nonrecovering and recovering) multivariate analysis of variance indicated no significant differences in ratings of satisfaction or relationship dimensions based on either the counselors' or supervisors' recovery status. A significant interaction effect for counselor and supervisor recovery status (i.e., match or mismatch of recovery status) was found for all satisfaction and relationship measures.     

The UCLA Body Project II: Breast and Body Dissatisfaction among African, Asian, European, and Hispanic American College Women

Breast and global body dissatisfaction were examined in Asian (n = 237), European (n = 196), Hispanic (n = 109), and African (n = 58) American college women. Asian American women reported the lowest body satisfaction on the Appearance Evaluation Scale (Cash, T. F. The multidimensional body-self relations questionnaire users’ manual: 3rd revision, 2000) and greatest breast dissatisfaction on one of two breast dissatisfaction measures. Ethnic differences in breast dissatisfaction, but not in body dissatisfaction, disappeared when body size (BMI) was statistically controlled. Results were consistent with research showing that (1) ethnic differences in body dissatisfaction are small, (2) studies of ethnic differences must include appropriate controls for total or specific body size, and (3) Asian college women report lower global body satisfaction than women of African, European, or Hispanic heritage. For additional papers and information, please contact David Frederick at enderflies1@aol.com, visit his website at or contact Gordon B. Forbes at gforbes@millikin.edu.     

Introducing Reality Play Therapy: Reactions and Perceptions From Elementary School Counselors

Many elementary school students lack school relationships required for positive personal, social, and academic interactions. Reality therapy and play therapy both seek to address these relationships through developmentally appropriate and effective interventions. Integrating these 2 approaches has the potential for elementary school counselors to provide students with opportunities to create positive relationships and develop problem-solving skills. In this study, 8 school counselors participated in a series of trainings introducing reality play-therapy techniques to assess this potential. A thematic analysis conducted on feedback sessions following the trainings yielded themes related to the participants’ positive perceptions to the training and possible application.     

Urbanization and Changing Perceptions of Responsibilities Among African Fathers

This study examined the effect of urbanization on 102 South African fathers' perceptions of their paternal responsibilities. Fathers were categorized as rural, transitional, or urban on the basis of a standardized interval measure of urbanization. Perceptions of paternal responsibilities were rank-ordered into three basic anthropologically sequential categories: breadwinner, governor, and family. Results indicated that rural, transitional, and urban fathers all viewed breadwinner responsibilities as most important but that urbanization had a significant effect on fathers' perceptions of their responsibilities.