Cognitive variables related to suicidal contemplation in adolescents with implications for long-range prevention

In a series of studies with college and high school students (Total N=808) consistent and strong relationships were found between suicidal contemplation and the irrational beliefs considered by Rational-Emotive Theory & Therapy (RET) to underlie emotional distress. Suicidal contemplation was measured first by an item from the Beck Depression Inventory and subsequently by the Suicide Probability Scale. Irrational beliefs were measured by the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test and, in the third study, by the new Attitudes & Belief Scale-II as well. Groups formed on the basis of increasing indices of suicidal contemplation were found to be consistently, increasingly more irrational on both measures. Also groups created according to low, medium, and high levels of irrational beliefs (the B in RET) were found to be markedly different on C variables such as anxiety, depression, hopelessness, anger, psychosomoatic symptoms and suicidal contemplation. The findings were interpreted as strongly inferring a causational relationship from attitudes and beliefs to emotional distress and the contemplation of suicide. The implications of the findings for RET theory and for therapeutic and preventive strategies related to emotional distress and suicidal contemplation are clear. Other approaches to the explanation of suicide are cited and reference is made to a previous critical summary of them (Woods & Muller, 1988).Paul J. Woods, Ph.D., Co-Editor of this Journal, is a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City, a Professor of Psychology at Hollins College, and a Licensed Psychologist in independent practice in Roanoke, Virginia.Ellen S. Silverman, R. N., C. & M.A. collaborated in Study III for a Master's thesis at Hollins College. She is currently in a Ph.D. program in psychology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University.Julia M. Gentilini, B. A. collaborated on Study I for an Honors' thesis in psychology at Hollins College.Deborah K. Cunningham, M. A. collaborated on Study II for a Master's thesis at Hollins College. She is currently in a Ph.D. program in psychology at the University of Memphis.Russell M. Grieger, Ph.D., Co-Editor of this Journal, is a Licensed Clinical Psychologist in independent practice in Charlottesville, Virginia, and a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City.     

Irrationality profiles for anger and anxiety

A fundamental position in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) is that irrational belief systems cause emotional disturbance. This study adds to the body of recent research substantiating this position by showing significantly different profiles on the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) (1968/1969) for a nonclinical population (N=446) differentiated according to low, medium, and high anxiety and low, medium, and high anger. The profile differences not only support the above fundamental position, but also offer some further evidence for the validity of the IBT.Paul J. Woods, Ph.D., co-editor of this journal, is an associate fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, a professor of psychology at Hollins College, and is engaged in private practice in Roanoke, Virginia.Samuel K. Coggin is completing his Master's work at Hollins College and is employed as a psychologist at the Central Virginia Training Center, Lynchburg, Virginia.     

Psychobiography and the Psychology of Religion: A Tribute to the Work of Donald Capps

This article examines Donald Capps’s work on the psychology of major religious figures and the social forces that informed their psychic lives, spiritual worldviews, and teachings. Drawing on four texts that were published between 2000 and 2014, the essay explores Capps’s views on the importance of psychobiography to the study of religion and the specific contributions his thinking has made to a greater understanding of the historical Jesus. The article considers Capps’s analysis of Jesus’s illegitimacy and his role as healer within the society in which he lived and preached. Building on Capps’s work, the article also expands on feminist and postcolonial theories that offer insight into the psychosocial development of religious figures whose teachings and beliefs emerged out of their individual life circumstances and the larger socio-political culture in which they lived.     

Rational-emotive therapy and the religious client

The religious client presents a particular challenge to the RET therapist in that the irrational beliefs responsible for the client's problems are often created or supported by distortions in the religious belief system. This paper will discuss the connections between religious distortions and the irrational ideas, ways to deal with them, and then present the most common religiously based irrational beliefs along with biblical disputations.Constance Lawrence, M.S., is Director of the Christian Counseling Center in Norwalk, CT, and also has a private practice in Weston, CT.     

Further indications on the validity and usefulness of the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test

Markedly different profiles on the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) were obtained from a sample of mental health professionals, of clients in psychotherapy, and of women college students, and the differences were clearly interpretable. In a second study those with high (more irrational) scores on each scale were compared with those with low (more rational) scores on indicators of physical (psychosomatic) illness. On five of the scales as well as for the total score the more irrational groups had significantly more physical symptoms of illness. And, finally, tension headache frequency was found to be related to the total IBT score.It is argued that these findings offer further evidence for the validity of the IBT, and its use in research and clinical practice is encouraged. A reporting booklet for bibliotherapy use with clients is described.Paul J. Woods, Ph.D., co-editor of this journal, is an associate fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, a professor of psychology at Hollins College, and is engaged in private practice in Roanoke, Virginia.     

Feeling our way into empathy: Carl rogers,Heinz Kohut,and Jesus

Throughout their academic careers Carl Rogers and Heinz Kohut developed two contrasting definitions of empathy that influenced the ways in which both men sought to help their clients cope with emotional suffering. These two different understandings of empathy are contrasted to each other and finally compared with the understanding of empathy demonstrated in the teachings and actions of Jesus. It is hoped that through studying these ancient religious narratives we might be able to recover a deeper meaning of empathy.     

Religious Fundamentalism and Religious Orientation Among the Greek Orthodox

The experimenters explored how religious fundamentalism related with religious orientation, irrational thinking, and immature defense mechanisms. They also explored the possible moderational role of the Big 5 personality factors. The participants were predominantly Greek Orthodox College students from a Cypriot University. The experimenters employed a cross-sectional design and required participants to complete a series of self-report measures. Religious fundamentalism significantly predicted irrational thinking. Intrinsic and personal extrinsic religious orientations significantly predicted religious fundamentalism. The results provide support for the idea that the more dogmatically one holds their religious beliefs, the more likely they are to think irrationally.     

A study of “Belief” and “Non-belief” items from the jones irrational beliefs test with implications for the theory of RET

Evidence supporting the fundamental position of Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) that dysfunctional emotions and behaviors are heavily influenced by irrational beliefs has been questioned due to the fact that many measures of beliefs contain items that actually refer to emotions and behaviors. In this study individual items on the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) (Jones, 1968/69) were rated by a panel of experts in RET as to whether they referred to beliefs, behaviors, emotions, or were ambiguous. Then Belief items and Non-belief items from the responses of 368 participants were extracted and scored separately. The Non-belief scores, based on items mostly referring to emotions and behaviors, were strongly related to measures of distress, as would be expected. But scores based on items unequivocally referring to beliefs were also significantly related to measures of emotional distress, psychosomatic symptoms, and suicidal contemplation. These findings are interpreted as clear support for RET's position on the relationship between irrational beliefs (B's) and dysfunctional emotions and behaviors (C's).Co-Editor of thisJournal, is a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City, a Professor of Psychology at Hollins College, and a Licensed Psychologist in independent practice in Roanoke, Virginia.     

Irrational beliefs and psychosomatic disorders

Irrational beliefs were related to psychosomatic disorders in an adult sample of 57 male and 68 female psychotherapy clients and 62 male and 38 female adult nonclients. The client and nonclient samples differed markedly in a number of ways, but nevertheless, in both samples those with relatively high frequencies of psychosomatic disorders scored as more irrational on 7 of the 10 scales of the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) compared to those with relatively low frequencies of psychosomatic disorders. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses found Anxious Overconcern (AO) to account for 31.7% of the variance in the psychosomatic illness scores for the nonclient sample and 10.8% of the variance for the client sample. Subgroups within each sample formed on the basis of their AO scores (a B-level variable in RET theory) were subsequently found to be significantly different on the C-level variables of anxiety and psychosomatic disorders. It is argued that causal connections are implied and that the results are better understood in a monistic mind-body-unit conceptualization of the human organism.Paul J. Woods, Ph. D., co-editor of this journal, is a Fellow and an RET training supervisor of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, a professor of psychology at Hollins College, and is engaged in private practice in Roanoke, Virginia. Larry C. Lyons is a graduate student in the Masters' program in psychology at Hollins College.     

Intrinsic religiosity protects believers from the existential fear of a human Jesus

ABSTRACT

The present study examined the role of internalised religious beliefs in defending against existential concerns aroused from a creaturely Jesus. Prior work has found that biologically human traits (e.g., vomiting, sweating, etc.) can increase death concerns when applied to both humans and a god. Intrinsic beliefs, however, have been shown to reduce mortality awareness. In the current study, religious participants were primed with thoughts of either a human or neutral Jesus followed by a single item measure about fear of death. A moderated regression analysis found that whereas high intrinsic individuals were buffered from existential concerns, low intrinsic individuals experienced a greater fear of death when primed with a human Jesus. These results replicate prior work within terror management theory and the psychology of religion suggesting that internalised beliefs serve a protective function against existential anxieties.     

The contemplation of suicide: Its relationship to irrational beliefs in a client sample and the implications for long range suicide prevention

This study investigated differences in irrational belief systems between clients in psychotherapy who reported they were contemplating suicide and those who reported they were not. The sample included over 95% of all persons aged 16 and over seen for psychotherapy over a six-year period (90 males and 117 females). Those contemplating suicide (N=85) were significantly more irrational on a number of basic dimensions. The general composite picture was that of an individual who sees him/herself as a helpless victim of past and present circumstances who must, nevertheless, perform well, be approved of, and never have anything go wrong; any kind of failure would be awful for it would prove one to be a worthless person. Findings are consistent with other cognitive-behavioral research on suicide. Other approaches to the explanation of suicide are reviewed and criticized, especially those that in Rational-Emotive Therapy terms have made an A-C error.Paul J. Woods, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology at Hollins College, an associate fellow and a certified supervisor of training of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City, and is engaged in part-time private practice in Roanoke, VA.Geri E. Muller is a graduate student in the Master's program in psychology at Hollins College.     

Spirituality and Sexuality: An Exploration of the Religious Beliefs of Non-Heterosexual Christians in Great Britain

Abstract

This article analyzes the religious beliefs of 565 gay, lesbian and bisexual Christians, focusing on God, Jesus Christ and the Bible. Most respondents saw no conflict between their sexualities and their Christian faith. The examination of these religious beliefs uncovers themes that appear to be influenced by their social circumstances, the core of which being their stigmatized sexualities. Their beliefs of God were consistent with the ‘love and justice’ theme of queer theology. Jesus Christ was perceived as a good role model committed to social justice. Although the divinity of Christ was acknowledged, they did not consider him the exclusive way to salvation. The Bible was considered still relevant to everyday life. It was, however, not regarded as the sole guide for Christian living, and it should be interpreted through the lens of shifting socio-cultural realities and personal experiences. On the whole, the data seem to suggest that the respondents' personal experiences and collective social circumstances have an impact on their religious beliefs.     

Psychotherapy and the Mormon Faith

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, also known as the Mormon Church, is a Christian faith with a large presence across the globe. Although Mormon doctrine suggests that faith in Jesus allows people to overcome weakness and heal from pain, Mormon people are not immune from experiencing periods of mental and emotional suffering. The deeply held religious beliefs of Mormons can influence the nature of the psychological difficulties a Mormon individual is prone to experiencing, how and when they choose to seek treatment, as well as the types of treatment that may be most beneficial.     

Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational thinking

Several authors have suggested that perfectionism is associated with irrational thinking. The purpose of the present research was to test the hypothesis that various dimensions of perfectionism are related significantly to core irrational beliefs. In Study 1, 102 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT). The MPS provides assessments of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Analyses revealed that self-oriented perfectionism was correlated positively with the IBT high self-expectations and perfect solutions subscales. Socially prescribed perfectionism was correlated significantly with a variety of irrational beliefs including high self-expectations, demand for social approval, dependency, blame proneness, and anxious overconcern. Other-oriented perfectionism was correlated with few irrational beliefs. In Study 2, 130 subjects completed the MPS and the Survey of Personal Beliefs, a new measure of core irrational beliefs. Analyses confirmed that all three perfectionism dimensions were associated with core irrational beliefs. It is concluded that the results constitute general support for the hypothesis that cognitive aspects are important in both personal and social components of perfectionism and that perfectionists are characterized by increased levels of irrational beliefs that may contribute to maladjustment. The findings are discussed in terms of the associations among perfectionism, irrational beliefs, and maladjustment.Gordon L. Flett, Ph.D is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at York University. Paul L. Hewitt, Ph.D is a clinical psychologist at Brockville Psychiatric Hospital. He is also an assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Ottawa. Kirk R. Blankstein, Ph.D, is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at Erindale College, University of Toronto. Spomenka Koledin is a former student at Erindale College, University of Toronto. Currently, she is a graduate student in the Master of Arts programme at York University.     

The nature of irrational beliefs in different personality clusters of spouse abusers

Previous research has shown that a majority of spouse abusers have personality characteristics which are consistent with personality disorder and show symptoms of depression and anger expression. Irrational beliefs have been associated with the same emotions in nonabuser populations. The current study assessed the nature of irrational beliefs in a sample of spouse abusers. The results showed that abusers with personality disorder held more irrational beliefs than abusers without personality disorder. Labile symptoms were associated with three categories of irrational beliefs only in the abusers with personality disorder. The implications for the characterization of spouse abusers and the modification of spouse abuse are discussed.Jeffrey M. Lohr, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Arkansas-Fayetteville. His research interests are in the assessment of irrational beliefs and their association with dysphoric motivational statesL. Kevin Hamberger, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Psychology in the Family Practice Department of the Medical College of Wisconsin. His clinical and research interests are in the cognitive-behavioral treatment of male spouse abusers.Dennis Bonge, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Arkansas-Fayetteville. His research and teaching interests are in multivariate analysis and the assessment of irrational beliefsPortions of this paper presented at the 33rd Annual Convention of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta, GA, March, 1987.This research was supported by the Marie Wilson Howells Fund.     

Muslim–Paulician Encounters and Early Islamic Anti-Christian Polemical Writings

This article investigates the portrayals of the Paulicians in early Islamic sources and specifically analyses the role that Paulician religious views play in Islamic anti-Christian writings. The study also gives insights into the nature of materials that were available to Muslim scholars and the strategies they applied in constructing coherent arguments to refute certain Christian religious beliefs. In doing so, the study touches upon Muslims’ religious needs and scholarly curiosity, which sheds light on their intellectual interactions with non-Islamic religious beliefs and philosophical ideas. The article demonstrates that references to Paulician religious beliefs can be found primarily in early Christian–Islamic polemics. Muslim polemicists, most of whom were Mu?tazilites, attempted to demonstrate the soundness and the coherence of Islamic tenets vis-à-vis inadequacies and contradictions in Christian doctrines. The reliance of Muslim polemicists on heresiographical discourse therefore constituted an important strategy to substantiate their polemical arguments. Two major issues stand out in Islamic portrayals of Paulician doctrines: the centrality of Paul of Samosata in the history of the sect, and his association with the view that Jesus was a human being devoid of divinity.     

From Prophecy to Practice: Mutual Selection Cycles in the Routinization of Charismatic Authority

We examine how culture and structure intersect in mediating competing claims to authority during the routinization of charisma. Using archival data, we trace the mechanisms of routinization in the early Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints during the succession crisis that followed the death of the prophet Joseph Smith in 1844, which resulted in the ascension of a new leader and shaped the institutional development of the religion. Combining in‐depth historical analysis and social network analysis, we identify key processes that led to the ultimate resolution of the crisis. These processes show that the way church members interpreted and enacted prophecies and theological teachings directly affected social networks within the community. In turn, this increased the importance of these particular teachings within the community and in the religious organization in a cycle that shaped the social mechanisms of the crisis resolution. Generalizing our findings, we introduce the concept of mutual selection cycles as a framework for explaining how prophecy and practice interact in institutionalizing charismatic authority.     

Children's conceptions of Jesus

This paper presents findings from a recent study investigating young children's (aged 10–11) conceptions of Jesus in England. The overall picture revealed by the study is that whilst there was a general assent amongst pupils in our sample towards an ethical and humanistic conception of the historical Jesus, there was less of a consensus about those issues which previous research claims children find difficult to understand, namely: the divinity of Jesus; the miracles of Jesus; and Christian beliefs pertaining to Jesus' continued presence in people's lives today. The paper concludes by arguing that the variety of conceptions of Jesus which are encountered in religious education (RE) may be seen by children as a barrier to learning rather than an opportunity to grow in understanding and highlights the need for further research into the relationship between children's hermeneutical horizons and RE curriculum content.     

Science and religion perspectives at St. John’s University of Tanzania (SJUT)

In an effort to shed much needed light on to religion and science perspectives in Africa, a preliminary survey was conducted to examine the views of undergraduate science students (N=143) at St. John’s University of Tanzania (SJUT). This research note presents initial survey findings, which explore perceptions of religion-and-science interactions and evolutionary theory as well as an attempt to ascertain what sources influence undergraduate sentiments about science and religion. Results point to prevalent negative beliefs about evolution and religion–science relationships. Additionally, exploratory factor analysis suggests that students with the most positive science-religion viewpoints identify the influence of university education in shaping such beliefs, rather than the teachings of religious leaders. Factor scores also disclose correlations between participants’ considerations of science-religion relationships and reported statements members of students’ religious communities made about evolutionary theory.     

Innovative Returns to Tradition: Using Core Teachings as the Foundation for Innovative Accommodation

This article argues that religious groups sustain organizational vitality by preserving core teachings and promoting adaptive innovations. The core teachings guard the sacred beliefs and practices held as timeless, and the innovations adapt these teachings to new cultures and contexts—with the most successful innovations building on the core. Using organizational theory and previous research, I explain how core teachings sustain vitality and I uncover the organizational mechanisms stimulating and blocking innovations. Historical examples are used to illustrate how denominations struggle to preserve the continuity of distinctive core teachings and promote adaptive innovations. Finally, I discuss the implications this thesis holds for the study of American religion, both past and present.