Prenatal sex hormones and human aggression: A review,and new data on progestogen effects

We review data on aggression from psychological studies of offspring from two categories of abnormal prenatal sex hormone conditions: 1) endocrine disorders, and 2) hormone treatment during pregnancy. Both sources yield trends and some significant findings that are in line with the animal research based expectations of a positive androgen effect on the development of aggressive behavior. However, the available studies have many methodological weaknesses, and the results are not strong and open to interpretations by factors other than prenatal hormones. Potential modes of prenatal sex hormone effects are also discussed. In the second part, we present data on 13 boys and 15 girls who had been exposed to medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) in utero and on 28 closely pair-matched controls. The double-blind follow-up examination at age 9 to 14 years included questionnaires, half-structured interviews with mother and child separately, and a battery of psychological tests. Interviews were tape-recorded and rated by two independent raters. The results show weak but consistent differences, with the MPA-exposed subjects being lower in self- or mother-reported aggression than the controls. The results cannot be accounted for by differences in aggression-related rearing styles. However, the influence of pregnancy pathology cannot be totally excluded. We conclude that the available data are compatible with the hypothesis that prenatal sex hormones influence the development of human aggressive behavior. More sophisticated research studies are needed, however, to demonstrate hormonal effects and their mechanism of action in a reliable and valid fashion.     

A tool for thought! When comparative thinking reduces stereotyping effects

Stereotypes have pervasive, robust, and often unwanted effects on how people see and behave towards others. Undoing these effects has proven to be a daunting task. Two studies demonstrate that procedurally priming participants to engage in comparative thinking with a generalized focus on differences reduces behavioral and judgmental stereotyping effects. In Study 1, participants who were procedurally primed to focus on differences sat closer to a skinhead - a member of a negatively stereotyped group. In Study 2, participants primed on differences ascribed less gender stereotypic characteristics to a male and female target person. This suggests that comparative thinking with a focus on differences may be a simple cognitive tool to reduce the behavioral and judgmental effects of stereotyping.     

Ethnicity and the stigma of disabilities

Abstract

Recent studies reveal significant differences in the attitudes held by people of various ethnic groups toward people with disabilities. We surveyed university students and community members on a scale of desired social distance from people with disabilities. Study 1 revealed that Asian-American participants were more likely to stigmatize and less likely to differentiate between individuals with physical and mental illness than were their African-American, Latin-American or European-American counterparts. Study 2 compared U.S. born with Asian born Asian-Americans and found that nativity was a useful predictor of attitudes toward people with disabilities. Asian born participants were more likely to stigmatize disabilities overall (except mental illness and old age) than U.S. born participants presumably because of the level of assimilation. These cultural differences may have health care and psychosocial implications for those who are disabled and for health care providers.     

“Cold” Cognitive Control and Attentional Symptoms in Anxiety: Perceptions Versus Performance

Clinically significant anxiety is associated with an array of attentional symptoms (e.g., difficulty concentrating; unwanted thought) that are subjectively experienced as severe. However, neuropsychological findings are mixed with respect to the presence of cognitive deficits that can account for these symptoms. Contextualizing predictions from established clinical theories (e.g., Attentional Control Theory) within contemporary, neurobiologically derived models of cognitive control (Dual Mechanisms of Control Theory), the present study investigated the relationship between “cold” proactive and reactive cognitive control, task effort, and subjective attentional symptoms (difficulty concentrating; unwanted thought) in a mixed clinical sample of individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and/or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and a comparison sample of healthy controls. Clinical status moderated the relationship between attentional symptoms (attentional focusing and trait worry) and proactive cognitive control response time. Clinical status also moderated the relationship between trait worry and task effort. Higher trait worry was associated with slower proactive control and lower effort in healthy participants, but faster proactive control in clinical participants. Self-reported attentional focusing showed differential validity vis-à-vis proactive control response time in clinical versus healthy participants. Post-hoc conditional effects analysis suggested more accurate self-appraisals in healthy controls, but was not significant after correction for multiple comparisons. Preliminary evidence suggested that differences in task effort in anxious versus healthy adults may relate to subjective attentional symptoms in GAD and OCD.     

Sexual Harassment of Adolescents Perpetrated by Teachers and by Peers: An Exploration of the Dynamics of Power, Culture, and Gender in Secondary Schools

The purpose of this study was to explore and compare the similarities and disparities between sexual harassment of students that is perpetrated by teachers and by peers. The study involved 2,808 randomly selected adolescents at 22 secondary schools from two regions in the Netherlands. The sample comprised 14- and 15-year-old students (55% girls and 45% boys). The majority of the students' parents were born in the Netherlands (86%); 14% were born outside the Netherlands (Morocco, Turkey, and Surinam). The data revealed important differences between peer sexual harassment and sexual harassment perpetrated by teachers. Unwanted sexual behavior by peers is a cultural phenomenon that occurs in public areas. The relatively low incidence of unwanted sexual behavior (18%), however, does not fully reflect the Culture Model. Sexual harassment by teachers is a particularly detrimental experience for adolescents, and health-related problems are therefore reported in higher numbers. Contrary to the assumptions of the Power Model, sexual harassment perpetrated by teachers is not incidental (27%) and does not only occur in secluded places.     

The tendency to suppress, inhibiting thoughts, and dream rebound

Ironic control theory proposes that suppressing thoughts leads to increased occurrence of the suppressed thought because monitoring for the unwanted thought leads to intrusions. This study investigated the influence of suppressing unwanted thoughts on dream content. One hundred participants who had high or low levels of tendency to suppress unwanted thoughts nominated an intrusive thought, and half of the participants were instructed to suppress that thought for 5 min prior to sleeping. Participants completed a dream diary upon waking, which was subsequently rated by independent raters for dream content. In terms of the 79 participants who reported dreaming, more high suppressors who were instructed to suppress dreamt about the intrusive thought than high suppressors in the control condition. There was no difference between low suppressors in the suppression and control conditions. These results suggest that dream content can be influenced by attempted suppression prior to sleep, and this is particularly apparent in people with a tendency to suppress unwanted thoughts.     

A PROSPECTIVE STUDY OF SOMATIC AND EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS OF PREGNANCY

Using a prospective design, this study examined somatic and emotional symptoms of planned pregnancy in a sample of 162 healthy women. All women participated in a baseline (prepregnancy) interview. Seventy women became pregnant and were assessed at each trimester; the 92 nonpregnant controls were interviewed 3, 6, and 9 months after their baseline interview. All participants also completed the Anxiety and Depression subscales of the Symptom Checklist–Revised (SCL 90-R). No significant group differences were found at baseline. As expected, however, pregnant women reported significantly more instances of digestive symptoms (nausea, vomiting, heartburn), fatigue, and moodiness than nonpregnant controls. Discriminant-function analyses found that in the context of all symptom variables, nausea and fatigue were the primary distinguishing features of the first trimester. In the second and third trimester, fatigue and heartburn contributed to the distinction of pregnant and nonpregnant women. Although pregnancy precipitates many physical and psychological changes in this sample of women who had planned pregnancies, our results did not support the notion that pregnancy is either a time of significant emotional turmoil or of heightened emotional well-being.     

When Courtship Persistence Becomes Intrusive Pursuit: Comparing Rejecter and Pursuer Perspectives of Unrequited Attraction

Two hundred forty-one undergraduates described their experiences with unrequited love, both as pursuers (actors) and love interests (targets). As expected, targets and actors perspectives differed. As targets, participants reported being on the receiving end of more unwanted courtship tactics, violent and nonviolent, than they reported using as pursuers. Further, participants in the actor role—particularly men—tended to overreport receiving signals that their love interest was reciprocating, and to underreport receiving rejections. Meanwhile, targets—particularly women—claimed numerous attempts to reject, including explicitly stating “I am definitely not interested in you,” and indicated minimal positive reactions to the unwanted pursuit. Implications of these differences, and others, in perspectives for understanding difficulties in differentiating persistence from stalking are discussed.     

Dexamethasone can prevent stress-related litter deficits in the golden hamster

This study was designed to examine the effects of social subordination during early pregnancy in the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus). Primiparous females were mated to proven breeders and stressed during early pregnancy. Females were housed singly throughout gestation except for Days 4, 5, and 6 when they were paired for 10-min intervals three times each day with another female matched for age, weight, and day of pregnancy. Within each of the pairs, one female was consistently dominant to the other. Controls were exposed to a novel area instead of a conspecific. At parturition, all pups were counted, sexed, and weighed. There were no significant differences between control and dominant females' litter sizes and sex ratios. Subordinate females produced significantly smaller litters than control or dominant dams and significantly lower sex ratios than control dams. Subordinates produced fewer males than control or dominant dams, but there were no differences in the number of females produced. The entire experiment was repeated exactly except that females received a small dosage of dexamethasone in their drinking water on Days 3-7 of pregnancy. In this second group, there were no significant reductions in mean litter size, sex ratio, or pup weights among litters born to subordinate dams. These results suggest that subordinate dams produce smaller litters via selective resorption of males in utero and that the typical adrenal response to stress mediates this response.     

The stereotype rebound effect: Universal or culturally bounded process?

Stereotype rebound occurs when people experience an increase in stereotype use following attempts to suppress them. Two studies were conducted to examine cultural variability in the rebound effect. We hypothesized that, due to their experience suppressing unwanted thoughts, people from collectivist cultures would be less likely to experience the rebound effect than would people from individualist cultures. In both studies, U.S. and Chinese participants wrote two stories about gay men that were coded for stereotype use. Participants in the suppression condition were instructed to not to use stereotypes in their first story. As predicted, in both studies, U.S. participants in the suppression condition showed an increase in stereotype use in the second story, but Chinese participants did not. Potential explanations for cultural differences in the stereotype rebound effect are discussed.     

Cognitive function of youths born to mothers with opioid and poly-substance abuse problems during pregnancy

Previous research has provided inconclusive evidence regarding the neuropsychological difficulties of children born to mothers partaking in opioid or poly-drug use during pregnancy. Little is known about how these children fare as they get older. The present longitudinal study includes follow-up data on 45 children born to mothers who used heroin and poly-drugs and a group of 48 children without prenatal drug exposure. Most of the drug-exposed youths were placed in permanent foster or adoptive homes before one year of age. The youths (ages 17 to 21) were administered 10 neuropsychological tests. The drug-exposed youths had cognitive and fine motor functions within the normal range compared to population norms but performed significantly worse than the non-exposed group. There were indications of generally lower cognitive functions rather than specific problems with executive functioning. Lower mean birthweight in the risk group (619 grams mean difference, p < .001) only partially mediated the group differences in cognitive functioning. There was a tendency for youths who had few and early changes in their caregivers or who were born to mothers who had used the least number of different drugs during pregnancy to have the best cognitive scores. The study indicates that youths born to mothers who used multiple drugs during pregnancy are vulnerable relative to their peers within a wide range of cognitive functions. The vulnerability seems to be related not only to the mother’s drug use during pregnancy but also to factors such as birthweight and unstable parental care during infancy.     

Obsessional beliefs and the implicit and explicit morality of intrusive thoughts

Cognitive models of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) suggest that misinterpreting intrusive thoughts exacerbates obsessional thinking. To evaluate this hypothesis, healthy participants (N=91) were prompted to recollect their unwanted thoughts, and then beliefs about the immorality of these thoughts were manipulated. Next, participants completed implicit and explicit measures of self-evaluation and appraisals of unwanted thoughts. Results from structural regression analyses indicated that explicit responses to unwanted thoughts, such as evaluations of the significance of intrusive thoughts and state self-esteem, were predicted by pre-existing obsessional beliefs, but not by the morality instruction manipulation. In contrast, implicit responses, such as appraisals of unwanted thoughts as relatively important and evaluations of the self as relatively immoral and dangerous, were predicted by the interaction between specific obsessional beliefs (e.g., intolerance of uncertainty) and the morality instructions. Findings largely support cognitive models of OCD and suggest unique predictors of implicit and explicit responses to unwanted thoughts.     

Suppressing and focusing on a negative memory in social anxiety: effects on unwanted thoughts and mood

Researchers have hypothesized that thought suppression contributes to the large volume of unwanted thoughts in anxiety disorders. However, comparisons to both non-suppression and non-anxious groups are necessary for studies on thought suppression in high anxiety. Participants completed a series of thought verbalization periods and a social interaction. During one period, participants were randomly assigned to focus upon a negative social memory, suppress it, or think freely while monitoring the memory. Results indicated that thought suppression and focusing caused a greater rise and subsequent decline in unwanted thoughts than monitoring instructions for both high and low social anxiety groups. Importantly, highly socially anxious participants had more unwanted thoughts overall, but did not respond significantly differently to thinking instructions when compared to the less anxious group. Interestingly, highly socially anxious participants did report more thought suppression attempts in their everyday life. They also appeared to benefit by experiencing less shyness after suppression when compared to focusing, a pattern not evident for the low social anxiety group.     

The relationship between premature birth and caregiver first concern in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder: A brief report

The current study examines the relationship between premature birth and the age at which caregivers first become concerned with their child’s development in a sample of 84 toddlers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The participants were split into two groups: those born prematurely and those born full term. The results indicate that the age of caregiver first concern is significantly younger for those born prematurely than those born full term. The average age caregivers reported first becoming concerned about their child’s development was around 7 months for participants born prematurely and around 13 months for participants born full term. Possible explanations for the results and their implications are discussed.     

Trait anxiety, working memory capacity, and the effectiveness of memory suppression

We aimed at replicating the finding that humans are able to suppress unwanted memories, and tested whether this ability varies with individual differences in working memory capacity, trait anxiety and defensiveness. In a think/no-think experiment, participants either recalled or suppressed previously learned words for 0, 8 or 16 times. Suppression did not have an overall detrimental effect on later recall performance. However, higher recall rates after repeated suppression were exclusively predicted by higher trait anxiety. These results are discussed in relation to current theories on anxiety and executive control.     

Early sexual experiences among pregnant and parenting adolescents.

One hundred sixty-six pregnant or parenting adolescent females completed a survey regarding early sexual experiences (wanted and unwanted), family dysfunction and violence, and health-risky behaviors occurring prior to age 18. Fifty-three percent had at least one unwanted sexual experience. Younger age at first unwanted sexual experience was associated with younger age at first wanted sexual experience. Adolescent females with an unwanted sexual experience, as compared to those without, were more likely to be victims of physical violence, to have run away, to be substance abusers, and to have family members with drug or alcohol problems. Four factors explained 39% of the variance in age at first pregnancy: presence of a family member with a drinking problem, age first got hit with a belt or other object by a family member, age first got drunk, and age at first wanted sexual experience. It was concluded that the prevention of teenage pregnancy entails a multifaceted approach that addresses family life, early sexual experiences, and health-risky behaviors.     

Cognitive, perceptual, and personal-social development of prematurely born preschoolers

This study was designed to determine possible differences in the cognitive, perceptual, and personal-social development of prematurely and maturely born 3-yr.-olds which might foreshadow later learning problems. The subjects were 40 prematurely born graduates of a neonatal intensive care unit (birth weight less than 2,500 gm, less than 37 wk. gestation) matched on the pair-level with full-term controls on sex, race, post-conceptual age, and socioeconomic background. All subjects were singletons and parity was matched at the group level. No differences were found between the groups on tests of higher mental processes including the General Cognitive, Verbal, Quantitative, and Memory Scales of the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, and researcher-devised measures of problem-solving competence. No differences in parental reports of personal-social development were noted. Prematures did not perform as well as controls on perceptual performance tasks, and this difference was interpreted as reflecting relatively impaired visual-motor coordination.     

Prenatal depression predicts postpartum maternal attachment in low-income Latina mothers with infants

Although maternal attachment is an important predictor of infant attachment security and other developmental outcomes, little is known about the formation of maternal attachment in the first few months of the infant's life, particularly among ethnic minority mothers. The current study examined the predictors of postpartum maternal attachment in a sample of 217 Latina women enrolled in a perinatal depression prevention trial. Mothers’ attachment to their infants was measured at 6-8 weeks postpartum using the Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale. A variety of predictors of early attachment were explored including: depressive symptoms during pregnancy, pregnancy intention, feelings about the pregnancy, and the quality of the partner relationship. The strongest predictor of lower maternal attachment was depressive symptoms late in pregnancy; pregnancy intention was marginally predictive of attachment, with lower scores being associated with unwanted pregnancies. The study fills a critical gap in our understanding of the role of depressive symptoms during pregnancy in shaping mothers’ early attachment to their infants.     

Effect of click trains on duration estimates by people with Parkinson's disease

Patients with a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease and age- and IQ-matched controls estimated the duration of short 500-Hz tones (325-1,225 ms), on trials where the tone was either preceded by 3 s of 5-Hz clicks, or presented without clicks. The click manipulation had been shown in earlier studies with student participants to make verbal estimates longer. Patients were tested both on and off their dopaminergic medication, and controls were also tested in two sessions. Verbal estimates were markedly and significantly longer on trials with clicks than on those without clicks for both the patients and the controls, but there were no significant performance differences between patients or controls, nor between the on and off medication sessions in the patients. The study shows that a manipulation of subjective time, which has had small but consistent effects in student participants, also affects timing in patients and adds to a growing body of evidence that timing in patients with Parkinson's disease may in many cases have the same characteristics as those of neurologically intact control groups.