The family relations of female juvenile delinquents

This study evaluated the assumption that the family relations of female delinquents are more dysfunctional than those of male delinquents. In a 2 × 2 (gender by delinquency status) design, 32 intact families were matched on demographic variables, and the male and female delinquents were matched on arrest data. Mothers, fathers, and adolescents were administered a selfreport personality inventory and were observed during a family interaction task. Consistent with the extant literature, families of delinquents had low rates of facultative information exchange and delinquent adolescents were more dominant toward their mothers than were well-adjusted adolescents. It was also observed that fathers of delinquents were more dominant toward their wives than were fathers of well-adjusted adolescents. In regard to the primary purpose of the study, it was observed that mother-adolescent dyads and parents in families of female delinquents had higher rates of conflict than their counterparts in families of male delinquents. In addition, the fathers of female delinquents were more neurotic than the fathers of male delinquents. These findings provide some support for the view that the families of female deliquents are especially dysfunctional.This research was supported by funding to the Department of Psychology at Memphis State University granted through the Centers of Excellence Program of the State of Tennessee. We gwratefully appreciate the cooperation of Judge Kenneth Turner of Memphis Juvenile Court, and of George Relyea, who has provided statistical consultation over the years.     

Different Pathways to Juvenile Delinquency: Characteristics of Early and Late Starters in a Sample of Previously Incarcerated Youth

We examined the differences between early and late start juvenile delinquents in a sample of 531 previously incarcerated youth in Oregon's juvenile justice system. Data were analyzed with logistic regression to predict early start delinquency based on four explanatory variables: foster care experience, family criminality, special education disability, and socioeconomic status. Youth with foster care experience were four times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no foster care experience. Youth with a family member convicted of a felony were two times more likely to be early start delinquents than youth with no family felony. Implications for future research are discussed, as well as implications for practice and policy. We suggest that future studies examine differences between male and female delinquents, the effects of foster care on children, and interfamilial processes that facilitate criminal behavior. Efforts to support children and families at risk of abuse and neglect should be reexamined in light of the results of our study, which adds to the emerging knowledge base regarding the relationships between violence experienced in early childhood, and future criminal behavior.     

Family interactions in black, lower-class families with delinquent and nondelinquent adolescent boys

The interaction patterns of 32 black, lower-class family triads (mother-father-son), divided into two equal groups by the son's delinquency status, were assessed across self-report and observational measures of family affect, conflict, and dominance. In support of previous research with white, middle-, and lower-middle class families, the results generally indicated that families with delinquent boys were less warm and more conflictual than families with nondelinquent boys. Relative to parents of nondelinquents, parents of delinquents were more conflictual on expressive family issues than on instrumental issues. In addition, the results showed that the content of the family interaction task (expressive vs. instrumental) influenced observed patterns of intrafamily dominance. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Single-Case Design in Family Therapy Evaluation Research

This paper discusses the need for the development of new research designs for family therapy evaluation, and a manner for meeting that need. The single-case research design has gained acceptance as bona fide experimental designs for evaluating the effectiveness of intervention techniques in drug and psychotherapy outcome research. Although the need for more outcome studies on the effectiveness of family therapy has been frequently noted, there has been virtually no use of the single-case design in family therapy outside of the behavior modification literature on families. This paper presents potential benefits of the application of single case-design for the practice of family therapy. Preliminary guidelines are suggested for the application of these designs.     

The empirical and theoretical base of family therapy and multiple family day therapy for adolescent anorexia nervosa

There is growing empirical evidence that family therapy is an effective treatment for anorexia nervosa, particularly in adolescence. This is in spite of the fact that the theoretical model from which most of the empirically based treatments are derived appears flawed. This paper provides a brief overview of the research evidence from treatment studies and studies of family functioning. It suggests that the main limitation of earlier theoretical models is their focus on aetiology rather than on an understanding of how families become organized around a potentially life-threatening problem. An alternative conceptual model is presented, and its application to family therapy and multiple-family therapy for adolescent anorexia nervosa is described. The treatment approach focuses on enhancing the families' own adaptive mechanism and mobilizing family strengths.     

Family treatment approaches to drug abuse problems: a review.

This review covers the literature that has emerged specifically on the family treatment of drug abuse problems. Following a brief discussion of patterns and structures prevalent in drug-abusing families, 68 different studies or programs (discussed in 74 papers) are compared as to their techniques and results. These are categorized within the following modalities: marital treatment, group treatment for parents, concurrent parent and identified patient treatment, treatment with individual families (both inpatient and outpatient), sibling-oriented treatment, multiple family therapy, and social network therapy. A table presents the various studies, along with the types of results they provide. Outcomes are contrasted for the 14 studies that quantified their results. The final section presents implications for the following areas: treatment activities (clarification of technique, family recruitment, direction and effectiveness of treatment, confidentiality, and treatment delivery systems), training, prevention, and future research (outcome, technique and responsibility). It is concluded that family treatment for drug abuse is gaining widespread acceptance and shows considerable promise for dealing effectively with problems of this type.     

Verbal Problem Solving in Families of Father-Absent and Father-Present Delinquent Boys

An observational method was used to investigate the relationship of juvenile delinquency and father absence to family problem-solving communicatian. Subjects included 18 intact (mother- father-son) and 18 father-absent (mother-son) families. In support of recent programs that have used probIem-solving interventions with families of deviant adolescents, the results indicated that adolescent delinquency was associated with lower rates of maternal problem solving. Members of families with delinquents also showed less emotional warmth, but not more conflict or attitudinal differences, than members of families with nondelinquents. Father-absence was associated with higher rates of maternal and adolescent problem solving. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Sequential analysis as a method of feedback for family therapy process

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between therapist verbal behavior and family cooperation and resistance during the second session of family therapy with juvenile delinquents. Sequential analysis was used to investigate the impact of one therapist's behavior on family resistance and cooperation in a sample of 12 families. The results of the sequential analysis revealed that therapist “support” and “teach” behaviors were associated with significant increases in the likelihood of family cooperation. The study provides an example of how sequential analysis can be used to inform family therapists about the impact of their behavior on families.     

Family therapy for childhood depression: researching significant moments

This paper is a qualitative family therapy process study which is part of a larger European-based outcome study comparing family therapy to child psychotherapy plus parent support for depressed children and their families. The family therapists and two clinical supervisors from the original study formed themselves into a research team to study the process of therapy with twelve families. Therapists selected the significant moments from fifty-nine sessions, and were then interviewed by the research team using a standard protocol to investigate the therapists' own thinking about the significant moments. Applying a thematic analysis, the significant moments were clustered into eleven themes. The paper discusses the rationale for this model of research, which is well suited for clinical teams, and the application of the themes to therapeutic work with depressed children and their families.     

A Review of Family Therapy in Residential Settings

This article provides an overview of the history of family involvement in residential treatment as well as a synthesis of the research showing family-centered interventions and outcomes for youth in residential settings. There are many methods for engaging families in residential treatment that are discussed in the literature; however, there is a significant gap as the field has not yet identified specific family therapy approaches that demonstrate efficacy in working with youth and their families in this particular setting. A review of the literature over the past 10 years will highlight the emerging family therapy models being utilized in this setting, which include multiple-family group intervention, family-directed structural therapy, and narrative family therapy. The article will also include a discussion of three major, well-established theoretical approaches that have been found to be effective in working with youth with conduct issues and show promise in treating youth and families in the complex setting of residential treatment: brief strategic family therapy, multi systemic therapy, and functional family therapy.     

Examining the Role of Social Network Intervention as an Integral Component of Community-Based,Family-Focused Practice

Social network intervention aimed at bolstering the informal supports of high risk families is recognized as a common element of community-based, family-focused practice models, such as intensive family preservation services (IFPS), multisystemic therapy (MST), and the wraparound process. The empirical research basis for these practice models is examined, with an eye toward discerning the extent to which network intervention is identified as a critical component of comprehensive service. Results reveal that few studies make clear the degree to which treatment adhered to a focus on natural network enhancement or the development of informal resources. Those that did, suggest that relatively few families received this form of ecologically-oriented intervention. Consequently, this body of practice research offers insufficient evidence of the benefits or limitations associated with network facilitation with multi-need families. Explanations for these findings are explored and directions for future research are recommended.     

Family size and delinquency

A review of the literature shows that large family size is related to greater delinquency. The relationship remains when a number of variables, i.e., income, socioeconomic status, parental criminality, and family composition, have been controlled. The higher birth rate for lower classes does not appear to be an adequate explanation for this relationship, nor does less close parent-child affectional ties or less parental supervision although all of these may have some influence. The presence of an "infectious example" may partly account for the relationship, as does overcrowding. Large family size is typically associated with the constellation of undesirable family conditions involving poor role models (e.g., poor parental behaviour, parental criminality, sibling delinquency), poor child-rearing practices (e.g., inadequate parental supervision and discipline), and competition for physical (e.g., overcrowding, low income) and psychological (e.g., lack of attention, affection, family interaction) resources. An immediate solution is to reduce the size of families by helping prospective parents plan their families, and for those who wish it, making medical abortions more readily available. The long-range solution is through research to identify variables which significantly influence the relationship between family size and delinquency. Such studies must control for birth order, sibling spacing, siblings' sex, and sex of the delinquents in these families.     

Simulation as a tool in family therapy research

The efficacy and validity of simulation for purposes of training and evaluation are well established. Simulation has proven valuable in human behaviour research as well. However, based on the belief that families and other small groups behave differently, many family theorists have concluded that simulation may not be valid for family research despite the fact that some empirical studies showed little difference between simulated and actual families, suggesting that the disparity may not be as great as commonly believed. Ongoing and future studies controlling for 'time together', a dimension presumed to be critical in comparing simulated with actual families, may demonstrate that differences are not sufficiently large to preclude the use of simulated families in family research. Methodological problems are addressed and directions for future research proposed.     

The Results of Family Therapy: A Critical Review of the Literature

A search was conducted in the family therapy literature for studied which reported on the outcome of family therapy. It was difficult to find any consensus on a definition of family therapy. Therefore an arbitrary definition, involving the predominant use of joint and family interviews, was stipulated. A total of eighteen studies met minimal standards for inclusion and were summarized and discussed in this paper. Only two of these studies could be considered adequate in their research design; the remainder of the studies were (with one borderline exception) considered inadequate. The clinical evaluations of family therapy were summarized and possible methods and goals for future research into the outcome of family therapy are discussed.     

Videotaped simulated families as a tool in family therapy outcome research

Twenty-two therapists who had treated 57 families in brief conjoint family therapy under supervision responded to a videotaped simulated family as if they were treating it. Their responses were audiotaped and coded on a system devised for this study. Positive relationships were found between the ratings of expertise based on the coding system, and independent ratings of the treated families' satisfaction with treatment and the status of the presenting symptoms 6 months after termination. Videotaped simulated families are potentially useful as standardizable methods of revealing individual differences in therapists for family therapy outcome research.     

Family therapy as a treatment for children: a critical review of outcome research.

The value of family therapy as a treatment for child psychopathology is considered by reviewing pertinent outcome research. Fourteen studies that met three criteria are included in the review: (a) a child or adolescent was the identified patient or referral; (b) therapy included at least one parent and the child; and (c) outcome was evaluated in terms of the child's symptoms. There are major shortcomings in most of the available data, with only two well-controlled studies. Some empirical evidence does exist that family therapy is an effective treatment for children; the data from studies of adolescents are especially encouraging. However, insufficient data are available for comparing the relative merits of conjoint family treatment and individual child therapy. If the value of family therapy as a treatment alternative or, ideally, as the "treatment of choice" for a referred individual child is to be established, more and better controlled comparative outcome studies will be necessary. Suggestions for future research are presented emphasizing the need for a developmental perspective by recommending, for example, the use of factorial designs in which the intervenaction of treatment and age can be analyzed.     

A three-year follow-up of family therapy

A 3-year follow-up of a family therapy focusing on adolescents was done. Twenty-four of 28 families were contacted by telephone interviews with the mothers. Nine variables were assessed with a trend shown toward the deterioration of previously superior effects of short-term family therapy with 57% of the family therapy group identified patients versus 20% of the individual therapy group identified patients having been rehospitalized by the end of the 3 years since the original (3 month) follow-up. Thus, the longer-term finding suggests a superior effect of individual therapy over family therapy, although this conclusion must be provisional in the light of limitations in the research method used and/or chance factors.Our interest in this brief report is to call attention to the critical nature of the time factor in follow-up studies, as most of those currently available have been limited to follow-up periods of one year or less.     

Family therapy research: Comment on “research as a family therapy intervention technique”

Wright's emphasis on and illustration of the use of family therapy research as a unique intervention technique for therapy is an important contribution to the practice literature. Equally important, however, is the isomorphic shift in focus of the family therapy researcher. Rather than focusing only on process or outcome research, family therapists should become more interested in their clients as research subjects. Though rarely discussed in the family therapy literature, the competencies of family therapists as researchers and the utility of research in a family therapy context is critical to being a well-rounded professional. Examples are provided of how this emphasis is being introduced in a PhD family therapy program.     

Building a research base for community services for children and families: What we know and what we need to learn

We examine the knowledge base for community-based mental health services for youth and their families. A brief historical perspective on the development of community services is presented, and the fundamental components of a comprehensive child mental health service system are described. Outcome studies for service components as well as the service system as a whole are summarized. Research related to the context of treatment, i.e., service setting, cost, is presented. The authors conclude that a research base for child and family services is emerging, but there is still a paucity of well designed studies that address the complexities of a community-based system as well as the critical outcome questions that need to be addressed. Finally, promising service system developments are described and recommendations for future research are presented.     

The Results of Family Therapy Revisited: The Nonbehavioral Methods

Studies from 1971 to 1976 reporting on the outcome of the nonbehavioral family therapies are analyzed and critically reviewed. Such research has increased in both quality and quantity since 1970 and, broadly speaking, has legitimized the status of family therapy as a viable mode of helping. Particularly potent effects were noted for family therapy as an alternative to psychiatric hospitalization, with psychosomatic problems in children and adolescents, and in certain applications with parent-child and parent-adolescent relationships. However, a number of studies comparing family therapy with no formal treatment or an alternative treatment found little difference in outcome. Problems in family therapy outcome research are discussed and some future directions suggested.