Age-related differences in clustering: A new approach

The present study attempted to determine why children under 8 years of age show categorical clustering in free recall above chance expectations, but such organization does not correlate with recall. Six-year-old children and adults were tested for their memory for 24 pictures of categorizable items. Several new measures of organization such as the proportion of items recalled in category strings and number of strings of each length were evaluated. It was found that children's output is characterized by strings of only two intracategory items and many isolates which does not contribute to recall. Adults produced longer strings from more categories which enhanced recall. In addition, different characteristics of output organization predicted recall for adults and children.     

An approach to geometry of visual space with no a priori mapping functions: Multidimensional mapping according to Riemannian metrics

A method of multidimensional mapping is described which constructs a configuration of points {P_i} in a Euclidean map of Riemannian space of constant curvature (hyperbolic, Euclidean, and elliptic) from the dissimilarity matrix (d_ij). The method was applied to the distance matrix in visual space where stimulus points Q_i were either small light points in the dark or small black points in the illuminated field surrounded by white curtains and d_ij represent scaled values of perceptual distances. Configuration of points {Q_i} were at intersections of parallel or distance alleys and horopters for the subject in the horizontal plane of the eye level. In contrast to the theoretical equations for {Q_i} by Luneburg and Blank, no a priori assumption on mapping functions between {Q_i} and {P_i} is necessary in this procedure to fit theoretical curves to {P_i} in the Euclidean map. The data were accounted for better by equations in the hyperbolic plane than by ones in the Euclidean plane. Discussions are made on robustness of Euclidean representation and on how to approach geometry of visual space as a dynamic entity under more natural conditions than the traditional frameless condition for alley and horopter experiments.     

Piaget's theory of space perception in infancy.

Piaget's theory of space perception in infancy is presented in the format of a hypothetico-deductive system. Eleven hypotheses are defined, regarding the perception of the agent of visual change; shape and size constancy; depth; and the perception of higher-order relationships among spatial elements. The proof Piaget offers for each hypothesis is presented in the following steps: behavioral evidence, interpretation in terms of inner states; inferences and generalizations. Presuppositions underlying the arguments are explicated. Critical notes are inserted whenever appropriate. Some general conclusions are briefly discussed.     

Effects of quantitative shifts in a visual reinforcer on the instrumental response of infants.

Two studies examined the effects of quantitative (“complexity”) differences in a visual reinforcer and subsequent reward shifts, on operant response rates. Footkicks and visual attention of 3-month-old infants were measured across daily sessions with conjugate reinforcement provided by an overhead mobile containing either two, six or ten identical components. In Experiment 1, initial rates to the three mobiles differed. The relation between components and kicking was not linear, but was an inverted U-shaped function of component numerosity. The infant responses as a function of numerosity from Experiment 1 were used to define “complexity” in Experiment 2, and all subjects were switched to an intermediate complexity level (two components) after achieving a criterion of stable responding. Although the number of mobile components did not differentially affect acquisition rates, infants who received a shift from six to two components exhibited a reliable and immediate response increase whereas those experiencing a ten- to two-component shift exhibited negative behaviors. These results imply that infants respond relationally, actively manipulating their visual environments as a function of their previous contextual experiences.     

Misconceptions about the Fishbein model: Reflections on a study by Songer-Nocks

Songer-Nocks has questioned the generality and sufficiency of Fishbein's model of intentions. It is shown that her conclusions reflect a basic misunderstanding of the model and its implications. Several misconceptions are identified and an attempt is made to clarify some of the theoretical and methodological issues involved.     

Effects of instructions, biofeedback, reward, and cognitive mediation on the control of heart rate and the application of that control in a stressful situation

Subjects in Phase 1 of this experiment were (a) instructed to try to either increase or decrease their heart rate, (b) with or without the use of biofeedback, and (c) with or without the promise of money for successful performance, whereas no-treatment subjects were given no instructions, no biofeedback, and no promise of reward. Results indicated that (a) when simply instructed to do so, subjects could increase but not decrease their heart rates relative to no treatment controls, (b) the promise of money for good performance aided subjects in increasing but not decreasing heart rate, and (c) biofeedback did not aid subjects in either increasing or decreasing heart rate. Various cognitive strategies employed by subjects in controlling their heart rates are discussed.In Phase 2, subjects in a stress condition were told that they would receive a series of painful electric shocks, whereas subjects in a no stress condition were not told about shocks. All subjects were instructed to try to decrease their heart rates during the “shock” period. Heart rate and self report data revealed that (a) the manipulation was successful in increasing stress, and (b) previous training in decreasing heart rate, with or without biofeedback, did not aid subjects in decreasing their heart rates in the face of the stress.     

The actions of others as determinants of behavior in social trap situations

Three studies were conducted to determine the effects of observing the behaviors of others upon an individual's actions in a simulated social trap situation. In Experiment 1, it was found that merely having the opportunity to make comparative appraisals of the actions of others led to greater competition for a finite common resource than when subjects were physically isolated from one another. In Experiment 2, false feedback was given to subjects to determine if the actions of others alone were responsible for the deleterious effects of having the opportunity for comparative appraisal; it was found that subjects quickly conformed to the behavior pattern of the interacting others, regardless of whether the false feedback indicated that the other subjects were consuming more or less than no-treatment control subjects. Experiment 3 was conducted to determine the motivation of subjects reacting to the actions of others; differential predictions based upon a competition/relative outcome explanation and upon an information search explanation were made. The data were consistent with the information search explanation.     

The sex by race interaction in cognitive measures

Data consisting of 79 cognitive measures from Project TALENT for 100,000 white and black high school students have been analyzed for possible race by sex interactions. Control variables included geographical area, grade in high school, and socio-economic class. Race by sex interactions are largest when socioeconomic class is controlled and are highly related to the size of the main effect of sex as well. White boys and girls differ more than black boys and girls whether the overall sex difference favors males or females. Sex by grade and, to a lesser extent, sex by area interactions were also moderately large and consistent with the size of the main effect of sex. Since there are no consistent relationships with other main effects, and since the measures producing sex differences also tend to produce the interactions, it is concluded that sex differences and the interactions with sex share the same causes. Differences between these results and those of Jensen are also discussed.     

Two components of need for approval score and their relationship to cheating following success and failure

Subjects completed a simulated “intelligence test” on which they were given bogus feedback indicating that they had either met college norms or had failed substantially to meet norms. Immediately following was a period in which subjects could modify their scores and believe that their modification would go undetected. The relationship of need for approval to “cheating” and amount of “cheating” was analyzed. The results supported an “avoidance” interpretation of approval motivation. Two separate components of need for approval score were identified and found to be differentially related to avoidance behavior for men and for women.     

Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception

The idea that global structuring of a visual scene precedes analysis of local features is suggested, discussed, and tested. In the first two experiments subjects were asked to respond to an auditorily presented name of a letter while looking at a visual stimulus that consisted of a large character (the global level) made out of small characters (the local level). The subjects' auditory discrimination responses were subject to interference only by the global level and not by the local one. In Experiment 3 subjects were presented with large characters made out of small ones, and they had to recognize either just the large characters or just the small ones. Whereas the identity of the small characters had no effect on recognition of the large ones, global cues which conflicted with the local ones did inhibit the responses to the local level. In Experiment 4 subjects were asked to judge whether pairs of simple patterns of geometrical forms which were presented for a brief duration were the same or different. The patterns within a pair could differ either at the global or at the local level. It was found that global differences were detected more often than local differences.     

Dominance and sex differences in nonverbal responses to differential eye contact

Sixteen male and 16 female subjects were divided into high- and low-dominant groups and assigned to one of two cohorts who either avoided eye contact or maintained a steady gaze. Starting 100 in. apart, subjects were asked to approach the cohort to the point where they felt most comfortable. Dependent measures were personal space, approach rate, reciprocal eye contact, and attitude toward cohort. It was found that high-dominant subjects showed increased proxemic behavior in responding to a direct gaze, while low-dominant subjects showed a decrease. Also men tend to use personal space and approach rate to signal dominance, while women use reciprocal eye contact. Finally, an exception was found to previous findings that positive attitudes are associated with high levels of eye contact. Low-dominant males, but no other groups, respond to direct gaze with a more negative attitude.     

The effect of orthographic structure on word recognition in a visual search task

The effect of the orthographic structure of the stimulus field on the visual search performance of third graders (8-8 years), sixth graders (11-7 years) and adults was investigated in three experiments. In Experiment 1, where the predesignated target was one word, subjects of all ages searched equally fast through fields consisting of words, pseudowords, and nonwords. In contrast, subjects of all ages displayed effects of orthographic structure when searching for instances of a semantic category (Experiment 2) or for three words (Experiment 3). Subjects searched faster through nonwords than through pseudowords and faster through pseudowords than through words. The use of orthographic structure to facilitate search did not increase with age, suggesting that children of the youngest age group were already making maximal use of intraword redundancy.     

Attentional deficit in learning-disabled children: evidence from visual half-field asymmetries

The structural theory of cerebral lateralization has been typically used to explain hemispheric asymmetries. However, the attentional model of brain functioning may help resolve some of the inconsistent findings with groups of learning-disabled children. To test this hypothesis, a visual half-field paradigm for word recognition was employed in a group of 26 learning-disabled and 26 normal children matched for sex, chronological age, and handedness. Three experimental conditions (unilateral, cued unilateral, and bilateral) and two word error types (visually and acoustically confusable words) were analyzed. The results indicated that normals produced the expected RVHF superiority under all experimental conditions, but the learning-disabled produced the expected RVHF superiority only under the cued unilateral condition. Learning-disabled children also made significantly more visually and acoustically confusable errors than normals and unlike normal children increased the number of acoustic errors in the RVF under bilateral stimulation. These results provide evidence that learning-disabled children may process information inefficiently and have brain activation patterns that are more susceptible to attentional effects.     

One-way characteristic performance of rats under two-way signaled avoidance conditions

In Experiment 1, the conflict in a two-way active avoidance was reduced by allowing rats to avoid one of two levels of shock by running onto a safe platform which covered one half of the grid floor. Performance characteristics of one-way avoidance were obtained regardless of the shock intensity. Groups with no platform showed poor performance. Experiment 2 suggested that the facilitatory effect of the platforms was not due to the cue associated with platform removal. These results suggest that (a) rats can quickly learn to enter a spatially aversive location, (b) fast avoidance learning may be obtained in a two-way setting, and (c) rats seem capable of selective association of environmental and aversive stimuli.     

The role of locus of control of reinforcement in interpersonal attraction

The purpose of the present study was to examine initial interpersonal attraction as a function of locus of control orientation. Subjects, previously tested for internality and externality, listened to a tape of an alleged stranger of the same age and sex as the subject. In reality the tapes were prepared to be either primarily internal or external in emphasis. Subjects were then asked to make some judgments about the supposed stranger. Among these judgments was the degree of attraction felt toward the individual on the tape. It was hypothesized that similarity of locus of control orientation between a subject and a stranger would lead to greater initial attraction than would a complementary locus of control orientation. Contrary to prediction, the results showed that both internal and external subjects were significantly more attracted to an internal stranger than to an external stranger. These results were discussed within an interpersonal attraction framework which suggested the need for a two-factor theory as the basis for interpersonal attraction.