Moral Judgments of Aggressive and Nonaggressive Children

Abstract

Moral judgments were studied in 103 aggressive and 79 nonaggressive 10-year-old Finnish children. Their aggressiveness was evaluated by means of peer ratings. Moral judgments were assessed by presenting them with stories from their daily lives that contained moral conflicts. The results showed that the children did not adopt a constant level of moral reasoning; instead, judgments were situation specific. Furthermore, the moral cognitions of aggressive children did not differ from those of their nonaggressive peers, although sex-related differences tended to be significant: Boys adopted absolute moral standards, whereas girls' judgments were more relative.     

Attributional style in aggressive adolescent boys

Past research suggests that aggressive children misattribute hostile intentions to peers during ambiguous provocative interactions. This study sought to extend the analysis of attributional differences between aggressive and nonaggressive boys to a sample of court-involved adolescents and their perceptions of interactions involving both peers and adults. Three groups of youngsters (nonoffenders, nonaggressive offenders, and aggressive offenders) participated in a structured interview and provided causal attributions for interpersonal problems commonly faced by teenagers. Results indicated that offenders were more likely than nonoffenders to attribute blame to others in ambiguous problem situations. Among offenders, external, person-centered blame attributions were significantly related to aggressiveness. This relationship was found only in ambiguous situations, and the correlation between such person-centered attributions and aggressiveness was higher in adult-oriented interactions than in peer-oriented ones. Overall, the results suggest that aggressiveness among offenders is associated with an attributional style that is characterized by the tendency to attribute blame for problems in ambiguous interactions to global, dispositional characteristics of others.     

The decline of aggressiveness in male mice during group caging as determined by punishment delivered by the cage mates

Group-housed rodents are generally less aggressive than isolated counterparts. The present study examined the role of defeat by cage mates as a reason for this decline in aggressiveness. In Experiment I, highly aggressive isolated male mice were introduced into aggressive or nonaggressive resident groups. The intruder's level of aggressiveness directed toward a group-housed standard opponent declined more rapidly after daily exposure to the aggressive than to the nonaggressive groups. Intruders in the aggressive groups received more attacks from their cage mates, and delivered fewer attacks to them than did the intruders in the nonaggressive groups. In Experiment II, the intruders lived for seven days in small wire net cages in the middle of the group cages. Their level of aggressiveness toward standard opponents decreased little during the preexposure but after being put freely into the groups, their aggressiveness declined to a minimal level within a day. Experiment III showed that when the wire net protection in the middle of the cage was installed after the group caging experience, the aggressiveness of the intruders did not return to the isolation level as effectively as it did in isolation. This is explained by the aggression-inhibiting content that the cues from the cage mates have acquired during group caging. The decline of aggressiveness in male mice during group caging is determined by punishment delivered by the cage mates.     

Moral judgments of aggressive and nonaggressive children

Moral judgments were studied in 103 aggressive and 79 nonaggressive 10-year-old Finnish children. Their aggressiveness was evaluated by means of peer ratings. Moral judgments were assessed by presenting them with stories from their daily lives that contained moral conflicts. The results showed that the children did not adopt a constant level of moral reasoning; instead, judgments were situation specific. Furthermore, the moral cognitions of aggressive children did not differ from those of their nonaggressive peers, although sex-related differences tended to be significant: Boys adopted absolute moral standards, whereas girls' judgments were more relative.     

An aggression machine II. Interindividual differences in the aggressive defence responses aroused by varying stimulus conditions

PitkÄnen, L. An aggression machine. II. Interindividual differences in the aggressive defence responses aroused by varying stimulus conditions. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 65–74.-The subjects, six aggressive and nonaggressive groups of ten 9-year old boys, selected by rating method, were tested with an "aggression machine" (PAM) constructed by the writer. The varying stimulus conditions included two situations of impulsive aggression and six variations of specified attackers. The results showed that (1) the larger part of the variance of the intensity of aggression in the PAM was accounted for by the situational variations than by interindividual differences in coping with thwarting situations as measured by a rating method. (2) The overtly aggressive boys showed strong discrimination between the situations, while the overtly nonaggressive boys were quite insensitive to situational variations. (3) The intensity of aggressive defence towards a boy of the same age correlated most highly with rated aggressiveness. (4) The latency, duration, and number of aggressive responses did not vary as easily as the intensity according to situations.     

The effects of a model's success or failure on subsequent aggressive behavior

It was of interest in the present study to examine the influence of both aggressive and nonaggressive models who are successful or nonsuccessful in reducing aggression from an aggressive opponent. Male and female subjects viewed a same-sexed model interact with an aggressive opponent in a reaction time task. Half the subjects observed an aggressive model while the remaining subjects observed a nonaggressive model. For half the subjects the model was successful in reducing the aggressiveness of the opponent. Results indicated that both the model's behavior and the consequences to the model (success/nonsuccess) were important determinants of subsequent aggression by the subject. Results are discussed in terms of current research and theory in aggression control.     

Validity of the Children's Picture-Frustration Study: A Social-Cognitive Perspective

We used three studies to examine the validity of hostility scores from the Children's Form of the Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study in the context of Dodge's (1986) social information-processing model of aggression. Dodge's theory states that frustration results in retaliatory aggression only if the frustrated individual attributes hostile intent to the frustrator. Further, differences between aggressive and nonaggressive children in retaliatory aggression are more likely when the frustrator's intent is ambiguous than when the frustrator's intent is dear. In Study 1, items on the Children's P-F Study were rated by 237 children according to how mean they believed the frustrator in each item was. Results showed that items varied significantly in the amount of hostility portrayed. On the basis of these ratings, items were divided into those in which the intent was hostile, nonhostile, or ambiguous. In Studies 2 and 3, we tested Dodge's theory that differences between aggressive and nonaggressive children would be revealed on those items in which the frustrator's intention is ambiguous. In both studies, teachers' ratings of children's retaliatory aggression correlated significantly with the scale comprised of the ambiguous items but not with the scales comprised of the hostile or nonhostile items. The results provide further support to Dodge's theory of aggression and to the use of the Children's P-F Study within a social-cognitive perspective.     

Development of social problem‐solving strategies and changes in aggressive behavior: A 7‐year follow‐up from childhood to late adolescence

The aim of this study was to predict a stability of aggressive behavior on the basis of social problem‐solving strategies. Subjects were a total of 120 children, but complete follow‐up data were available only in 47 cases. Their aggressive behaviors were peer rated, and problem‐solving strategies were assessed in childhood subjects being 10 years on average, and 7 years later. Association between a development of social strategies and changes in aggressive behavior was studied with personality‐oriented pattern analyses. The main finding was that a development of strategies predicted a stability or changes of aggressive behavior very well. Aggressive strategies, both in childhood and in adolescence, as well as a lack of constructive alternatives characterized permanently aggressive subjects. Turning from nonaggressive to aggressive behavior was also explained by aggressive problem‐solving strategies, while a positive development, i.e., turning from childhood aggressive to adolescent nonaggressive behavior, was possible only if a person had never used aggressive strategies. Agreement between behavior and strategies was higher among girls. The findings supported a claim that intervention of aggressive behavior may be possible by modifying social strategies. Aggr. Behav. 25:269–279, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Patterns and temporal changes in peer affiliation among aggressive and nonaggressive children participating in a summer school program

Examined the behavior and affiliation patterns of 118 highly, moderately, and nonaggressive 7-year-old children over the course of a 6-week summer school program. During free play, participants did not selectively associate on the basis of behavioral similarity, but initial mutual friendship choices did show a preference for similarly behaved peers. Nonreciprocated friendships at the beginning and end of the program and mutual friendships at the end revealed a preference of all children to be-friend nonaggressive peers. Moderately aggressive children increased their number of mutual friendships and their association with nonaggressive peers during free play, whereas highly aggressive children lost mutual friends. The aggressiveness of a child's playmates predicted the likelihood of that child behaving inappropriately during free play. Results suggest that selective affiliation may be the result of peer rejection rather than an active process of seeking similarly aggressive peers.     

Aggressiveness and dominance in captive cock red grouse

A method for measuring the aggressiveness of captive cock red grouse is described. A cock's aggressiveness varied according to season, type of cage and social environment. A method for ranking the dominance order of cocks in a group is also described. Dominance ranks remained stable for up to two years. Correlations between the aggressiveness of isolated cocks and their dominance ranks when in a group were positive but weak. Aggressiveness and dominance should be clearly distinguished. Both aggressiveness and dominance were related to the size of cock's combs, and implants of testosterone increased all three. In situations where a cock's aggressiveness changed, comb size changed in the same direction. The aggressive behaviour of captive cocks shows several major parallels with that of wild cocks.     

Aggressive response sets and subtle-obvious MMPI scale distinctions in male offenders

The effects of aggressive and nonaggressive response sets on the MMPI subtle and obvious clinical subscales were investigated. Fifty-eight male prison inmates answered the MMPI as if they were either highly aggressive or highly nonaggressive. The clinical scales with sufficient items in each category were scored for subtle, neutral, and obvious subscales. Inmates successfully feigned aggressiveness on several of the obvious subscales (p = .0056) and one neutral scale; the subtle subscales were not significantly different across groups, consistent with previous research on this population in terms of the resistance of subtle items to these response sets.     

Effects of pairing aggressive and nonaggressive children in strategic peer affiliation

Examined the behavior of 118 second graders who participated in a 6-week summer school program that incorporated strategic peer affiliation (a buddy system). Moderately aggressive children (the targets of the intervention) were paired with nonaggressive peers throughout the program. All participants were observed playing foosball with their buddies and with aggressive and nonaggressive nonbuddies as teammates. Aggressive children had lower levels of disruptive behavior when their teammate was nonaggressive, regardless of whether the teammate was a buddy. Nonaggressive children showed elevated disruptive behavior when playing with an aggressive nonbuddy, but not when playing with an aggressive buddy. The highest level of aggressive behavior was seen in pairs of aggressive teammates who were friends. One year later, no increase in peer-rated aggressive behavior was found in either group. Results suggest that unidirectional peer influence is possible and that strategic peer affiliation can be an effective intervention that does not put nonaggressive children at risk for acquiring undesired behaviors.     

Seven‐year‐olds’ aggressive choices in a computer game can be predicted in infancy

Concerns about the relationship between computer games and children's aggression have been expressed for decades, but it is not yet clear whether the content of such games evokes aggression or a prior history of aggression promotes children's interest in aggressive games. Two hundred and sixty‐six 7‐year‐old children from a nationally representative longitudinal sample in the UK played a novel computer game (CAMGAME) in which the child's avatar encountered a series of social challenges that might evoke aggressive, prosocial or neutral behaviour. Aggressive choices during the game were predicted by well‐known risk factors for aggressive conduct problems and the children's own early angry aggressiveness as infants. These findings suggest that children who are predisposed to aggression bring those tendencies to virtual as well as real environments.     

Concurrent and predictive validity of self-reported aggressiveness

The subjects (60 boys) were drawn from the sample of a longitudinal study of social development and represented extremely aggressive, anxious, constructive, and submissive behaviour at the age of 8. They were presented with three question series concerning (1) their responses to aggressive attacks; (2) reactions in frustration situations presented in short stories; and (3) their aggressive initiatives. In each series the type of aggressive behaviour, attacker, victim, and other situational factors were systematically varied. In series 2 the type of response, open-ended or forced-choice, was also varied. The results showed that the most valid way of studying boys' self-observations on their aggressive behaviour was to ask if they attack somebody without a specific reason (series 3). This correlated with contemporaneous overt aggression at the age of 8 and predicted aggressiveness and various characteristics of antisocial aggressive development at the ages of 14 and 19. Self-observations on one's physical aggression were more valid for ratings of overt aggressiveness than on verbal aggression. The open-ended or forced-choice type of response did not affect the validity of aggressive responses. Of the categories of nonaggression, ‘conciliatory responses’ had the highest concurrent and predictive validity for constructiveness and other indicators of strong self-control.     

ESCAPE AS A FACTOR IN THE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR OF TWO RETARDED CHILDREN

This study sought to identify some of the variables controlling the severely aggressive behavior of two retarded children. In Experiment 1, each child was presented with several demand and nondemand situations. Aggression was frequent in the demand situations and rare in the nondemand situations. When a stimulus correlated with the termination of demands was introduced, aggression fell to a near zero level. In Experiment 2, for one child, a variety of preferred reinforcers was introduced into the demand situation contingent on correct responding. Aggression abruptly decreased to a low level. Experiments 3 and 4 involved the second child. In Experiment 3, this child was permitted, in one condition, to leave the demand situation if he emitted a nonaggressive response. Aggression decreased to a low level. In Experiment 4, he was prevented, in one condition, from leaving the demand situation in spite of high levels of aggression. Aggression fell to a near zero level. In Experiments 3 and 4, he was permitted, in several conditions, to leave the demand situation following aggressive behavior. Aggression increased to a high level. The results suggested that: (1) aggression can sometimes function as an escape response; and (2) escape-motivated aggression can be controlled by: (a) introducing strongly preferred reinforcers to attenuate the aversiveness of the demand situation; (b) strengthening an alternative, nonaggressive escape response; or (c) using an escape-extinction procedure.     

Effects of Aggressive and Nonaggressive Rock Songs on Projective and Structured Tests

The differences between hostility scores on projective and objective tests as a function of listening to aggressive or nonaggressive rock music were studied. While taking the Thematic Apperception Test (Cards 1, 3BM, 4, 9BM, and 10) and the Buss-Durkee (1957) Hostility Scale, subjects (N = 90) randomly assigned to one of three groups listened to a rock song with (a) nonaggressive music and non-aggressive lyrics, (b) aggressive music and nonaggressive lyrics, or (c) aggressive music and aggressive lyrics. TAT stories were scored for aggressive content according to Hafner and Kaplan's (1960) hostility rating scale. Hostility scores did not differ between groups. The findings are congruent with other investigators' reports that subjects do not pay attention to rock lyrics. Previous findings that music affects the emotional quality of TAT stories and hostility scores on the Buss-Durkee scale were not supported.     

Using Articulated Thoughts in Simulated Situations to Assess Cognitive Activity in Aggressive and Nonaggressive Adolescents

Articulated Thoughts in Simulated Situations (ATSS) is a think aloud method for examining a person's thought content as it unfolds in the situation. We used the ATSS to investigate the cognitive activity of aggressive and nonaggressive male and female adolescents as they listened to an audiotaped depiction of an ambiguous but provocative interaction with another student. Eighty-one adolescents participated in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment. The two factors were gender and aggressive vs. nonaggressive background. Students in the aggressive group had a history of aggressive behavior in the past year that was severe enough to warrant their arrest or suspension from school. Students in the nonaggressive group had no such history. As a secondary measure of anger and aggressiveness, we administered the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2). As predicted, males, compared to females, expressed more aggressive intent on the ATSS. Likewise, aggressive, compared to nonaggressive, adolescents expressed more anger and aggressive intent on the ATSS, as well as more intense feelings of anger, less control over their anger, and a greater tendency to externalize angry feelings on the STAXI-2. As expected, scores on the ATSS were related to scores on the STAXI-2. We concluded that the ATSS is a useful method for assessing cognitive activity that may mediate aggressive behavior in adolescents.     

Attributional style of the mother as a predictor of aggressive behavior of the child

The association between the life orientation and attributional styles of a mother and the aggressiveness of her child were studied in 61 mothers and their children, 23 boys and 38 girls, mean age 6.6 years (range 4–13 years). The mother's life orientation and attributional styles were established during interviews using the life-style questionnaire, and a child's aggressiveness was evaluated by the mother using the Health Examination Survey. The factors assessing life orientation were lack of personal control, causal unstability, internal locus of causality, personal responsibility, and democratic educational attitudes. The mother's personal responsibility and internal causal attributions were related to nonaggressiveness in the child, whereas mothers with a lack of personal control were likely to have aggressive children. Educational attitudes were of no importance. The results showed no sex- or age-related variance.     

The best friendships of aggressive boys: relationship quality, conflict management, and rule-breaking behavior

The current study examined the best friendships of aggressive and nonaggressive boys (N = 96 boys, 48 dyads, mean age = 10.6 years). Friends completed self-report measures of friendship quality, and their interactions were observed in situations that required conflict management and provided opportunities for rule-breaking behavior. Although there were no differences in boys' self-reports of friendship quality, observers rated nonaggressive boys and their friends as showing greater positive engagement, on-task behavior, and reciprocity in their interactions compared with aggressive boys and their friends. Aggressive boys and their friends provided more enticement for rule violations and engaged in more rule-breaking behavior than did nonaggressive boys and their friends. Also, the intensity of negative affect in observed conflicts between aggressive boys and their friends was greater than that between nonaggressive boys and their friends. The findings suggest that friendships may provide different developmental contexts for aggressive and nonaggressive boys.     

Excitation transfer in communication-mediated aggressive behavior

To test the effect of excitation produced during exposure to communication, both the excitatory potential and the degree of manifest aggressiveness of communications were assessed to select: (a) an aggressive communication associated with a particular excitatory potential; (b) a nonaggressive communication associated with an excitatory potential significantly below that of a; and (c) another nonaggressive communication associated with an excitatory potential significantly above that of a. A model of excitation transfer was advanced, based on the assumption that salient elements of excitation decay relatively slowly, and that interoception of excitation is nonspecific, permitting the integration of any residue with elements of the excitatory response to subsequent stimuli. If the postcommunication situation provides the individual with perception-cognitions enabling him to unambiguously interpret his emotional state, it is expected that this state is intensified by the magnitude of the excitational residue from the response to the communication. It was predicated that, quite independent of the degree of aggression manifest in the communication, postcommunication aggressive behavior would be facilitated mainly as a function of the communication's excitatory potential. The highly significant results obtained (b < a < c) were fully consistent with the predictions from the transfer paradigm.