Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses

The extent to which loneliness is a unique risk factor for depressive symptoms was determined in 2 population-based studies of middle-aged to older adults, and the possible causal influences between loneliness and depressive symptoms were examined longitudinally in the 2nd study. In Study 1, a nationally representative sample of persons aged 54 and older completed a telephone interview as part of a study of health and aging. Higher levels of loneliness were associated with more depressive symptoms, net of the effects of age, gender, ethnicity, education, income, marital status, social support, and perceived stress. In Study 2, detailed measures of loneliness, social support, perceived stress, hostility, and demographic characteristics were collected over a 3-year period from a population-based sample of adults ages 50-67 years from Cook County, Illinois. Loneliness was again associated with more depressive symptoms, net of demographic covariates, marital status, social support, hostility, and perceived stress. Latent variable growth models revealed reciprocal influences over time between loneliness and depressive symptomatology. These data suggest that loneliness and depressive symptomatology can act in a synergistic effect to diminish well-being in middle-aged and older adults.     

Social Anxiety Symptoms and Suicidal Ideation in a Clinical Sample of Early Adolescents: Examining Loneliness and Social Support as Longitudinal Mediators

Recent research has shown that social anxiety may be related to increased risk for suicidal ideation in teens, although this research largely has been cross-sectional and has not examined potential mediators of this relationship. A clinical sample of 144 early adolescents (72 % female; 12–15 years old) was assessed during psychiatric inpatient hospitalization and followed up at 9 and 18 months post-baseline. Symptoms of social anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, loneliness, and perceived social support were assessed via structured interviews and self-report instruments. Structural equation modeling revealed a significant direct relationship between social anxiety symptoms at baseline and suicidal ideation at 18 months post-baseline, even after controlling for baseline depressive symptoms and ideation. A second multiple mediation model revealed that baseline social anxiety had a significant indirect effect on suicidal ideation at 18 months post-baseline through loneliness at 9 months post-baseline. Social anxiety did not have a significant indirect effect on suicidal ideation through perceived social support from either parents or close friends. Findings suggest that loneliness may be particularly implicated in the relationship between social anxiety and suicidality in teens. Clinicians should assess and address feelings of loneliness when treating socially anxious adolescents.     

Effects of pain on functioning and well-being in older adults with osteoarthritis of the knee

The effects of pain on functioning and well-being were examined in 367 older adults with osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee. The relationship of OA-related pain to depressive symptoms and perceived health was hypothesized to be direct as well as mediated by physical and social functioning. Results showed that OA-related pain was related to poorer physical and social functioning, had a direct effect on depressive symptoms, and direct and indirect effects on perceived health. Lower social functioning was related to more depressive symptoms, and both lower social and physical functioning predicted worse perceived health. Thus, distinguishing between physical and social functioning when examining the costs of OA-related pain is useful. Moreover, existing pain-psychological well-being models can be generalized to perceived health.     

Early Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: Prediction from Clique Isolation,Loneliness, and Perceived Social Acceptance

This study examined whether clique isolation predicted an increase in depressive symptoms and whether this association was mediated by loneliness and perceived social acceptance in 310 children followed from age 11–14 years. Clique isolation was identified through social network analysis, whereas depressive symptoms, loneliness, and perceived social acceptance were assessed using self ratings. While accounting for initial levels of depressive symptoms, peer rejection, and friendlessness at age 11 years, a high probability of being isolated from cliques from age 11 to 13 years predicted depressive symptoms at age 14 years. The link between clique isolation and depressive symptoms was mediated by loneliness, but not by perceived social acceptance. No sex differences were found in the associations between clique isolation and depressive symptoms. These results suggest that clique isolation is a social risk factor for the escalation of depressive symptoms in early adolescence. Implications for research and prevention are discussed.     

Romantic relationship quality during the COVID-19 pandemic: The longitudinal associations with relationship loneliness and depression

The COVID-19 pandemic created significant strain on both mental health and romantic relationships. Therefore, we examined longitudinal associations between romantic relationship quality, relationship loneliness, and depressive symptoms over 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic. We surveyed 122 couples (n = 244 individuals) in approximately May, September, and November 2020. Using a dyadic mediation model, findings indicated that relationship quality at Time 1 was positively associated with depression at Time 3 for men, but not for women. A significant indirect effect of relationship quality on depression via relationship loneliness at Time 2 was found for both men and women. Self-mastery, or feeling in control of one's life circumstances, was an important covariate of women's depressive symptoms. Overall, these findings highlight relationship loneliness as particularly salient for mental health and demonstrate the importance of high-quality relationships for promoting well-being during stressful events, such as global pandemics.     

The boundaries between attachment and personality: Associations across three levels of the attachment network

This research examined the associations between measures of sociotropic and autonomous personality, romantic attachment anxiety and avoidance, and corresponding attachment ratings across a range of different specific relationships with people whom participants regularly interacted (including romantic partners, friends, family members, and colleagues). Analyses using hierarchical linear modeling showed that sociotropy and autonomy were directly associated with respective ratings of relationship-specific anxiety and avoidance within non-romantic relationships. In contrast, domain-specific romantic attachment predicted relationship-specific attachment with romantic (but not non-romantic) partners, and, as hypothesized, mediated the associations between sociotropy and autonomy and relationship-specific attachment within this domain. Implications for the operationalization of sociotropy and autonomy as broad-bandwidth (personality-level) measures that assess more global summaries of regularities in the same dual dimensions identified in the attachment literature (i.e., attachment anxiety and avoidance) are discussed.     

Organization and predictive power of general and relationship-specific attachment models: one for all, and all for one?

Given recent evidence for multiple attachment models, we examined the organization and predictive power of general and relationship-specific attachment representations in two samples using two distinct measures of attachment models. With regard to associations among relationship-specific models, peer models (romantic partner and friend) and parental models (mother and father) were more similar to each other than to any other models, and anxiety/self-model representations were more consistent across relationships than avoidance/other-model representations. With regard to links between general and specific models, romantic and friend models made the strongest and independent contributions to general models, and romantic relationship involvement moderated the importance of romantic models to general models. With regard to differential predictive power of multiple models, general, romantic partner, and mother attachment made unique contributions to well-being indicators; relationship outcomes, however, were only predicted by individuals' corresponding relationship-specific models. Implications for the measurement and conceptualization of adult attachment are discussed.     

A Test of the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model among Ethnic Minority Youth

Perfectionistic self-presentation (PSP) has been identified as a vulnerability factor in the development of depressive disorders during early adolescence. The Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) offers a theoretical framework suggesting PSP leads to depressive symptoms via interpersonal problems and social disconnection. Previous studies have supported the role of social disconnection as a mediator in the relation between PSP and suicidal ideation, but have not evaluated interpersonal problems in the model. Furthermore, the generalizability of the model has not been established for community and ethnic minority samples. Using cross-sectional data, the present study addresses these gaps by evaluating the PSDM and including social anxiety and loneliness as indicators of interpersonal problems and social disconnection, respectively, as predictors of youth depressive symptoms. The sample includes 289 (51.2% females) predominately low income and Latino and African American youth in fifth through seventh grade in three public schools. As predicted, social anxiety mediates the relationship between both PSP and loneliness and PSP and depressive symptoms. Moreover, mediational analyses indicate that social anxiety accounts for the relation between PSP and depression. Consistent with the PSDM model, the relationship between PSP and youth depressive symptoms is mediated sequentially through both social anxiety and loneliness, but primarily among the Latino sample.     

The other way around: does health predict perceived support?

The aim in this study was to identify predictors of perceived social support before and after cataract surgery. We hypothesized that physical (comorbidity and visual acuity) and mental (depressive symptoms) health indicators would be directly and indirectly (through actually received support) associated with perceived support. One hundred and thirty-six cataract patients (69% women; mean age = 71.6 years) completed questionnaires before and after cataract surgery. Results showed that received support partially mediated the association between depressive symptoms and perceived support. However, mental and physical health variables were also directly associated with perceived support. We conclude that health status might feedback to perceptions of available support.     

Longitudinal Study of Life Events,Well-Being,Emotional Regulation and Depressive Symptomatology

Etiological research regarding adolescent depression is relatively recent and longitudinal studies are needed to explicate the mechanisms by which risk and protective factors impact the development of depression. This investigation evaluated the effects of time 1 predictors (e.g., depressive symptoms, life events, subjective well-being, and emotion regulation strategies) on depressive symptoms assessed at time 2 (1 year later). The sample comprised 182 Portuguese adolescents, aged 12–16. Time 1 depressive symptoms and psychological well-being were significant predictors of time 2 depressive symptoms. Time 1 rumination predicted time 2 depressive symptoms, but time 2 brooding mediated this effect. Time 1 life events did not predict time 2 depressive symptomatology. This study identified several factors that seem to play an important role in the development of depressive symptomatology. Previous depressive symptomatology and well-being had a significant effect in this process and the relationship between rumination in time 1 and depressive symptoms at time 2 (1 year later) was fully mediated by brooding at time 2. Given these results, implications for prevention and treatment of depression include addressing risk factors like early depressive symptoms, rumination and brooding, and increasing the protective effect of psychological well-being.     

Can Couple Level Attachment Mediate the Influence of Depressive Symptoms on Health?

This study examined whether couple attachment behaviors, as measured by the BARE (Brief Accessibility, Responsiveness, and Engagement Scale), can mediate the influence of depressive symptoms on health for men and women. Data were gathered from the Relate Institute (www.relateinstitute.com) from 797 couples who were in a romantic relationship. Results showed depressive symptoms negatively predict daily eating habits and activity level and positively predicted total health problems and healthcare utilization for both females and males. For partners, female depression negatively predicated both male physical activity and total health problems, and also positively predicted healthcare utilization for men. Results also suggest that attachment behaviors mediated the association between depressive symptoms and total health problems. Findings are discussed from both a clinical and systemic perspective. It may be that fostering secure attachment behaviors in romantic relationships would be a helpful tool for providers working to address the depressive symptoms patients face.     

Spiritual Well-Being and Psychological Adjustment: Mediated by Interpersonal Needs?

Spiritual well-being has been shown to reduce suicidal behavior, depressive symptoms, and hopelessness. Thwarted interpersonal needs have been shown to increase risk of suicidal behavior. This paper aims to explore the interrelationships among spiritual well-being, thwarted interpersonal needs, and negative outcomes including suicidal ideation, hopelessness, and depressive symptoms among African American women. Sixty-six African American women (M = 36.18; SD = 11.70), from a larger study of women who had experienced interpersonal violence within the past year, completed self-report questionnaires. Mediation analyses revealed that thwarted belongingness, but not perceived burdensomeness, significantly mediated the relations between spiritual well-being and the three outcomes. This study provides the first examination of the role of thwarted interpersonal needs on the link between spiritual well-being and negative psychological outcomes. Spiritual well-being serves a protective role against feelings of social isolation, which may reduce one’s risk of negative psychological outcomes. Treatments that bolster a sense of spirituality and social connectedness may reduce suicidal ideation, hopelessness, and depressive symptoms.     

I get so lonely,baby: The effects of loneliness and social isolation on romantic dependency

Individuals lacking fulfilling interpersonal interactions may experience feelings of loneliness. Consequently, these individuals may over-rely on their romantic partners to fulfill the need to belong. This study examined the effects of loneliness and social isolation on dependency on a romantic partner in a sample of college students (N = 104). Participants who were in a romantic relationship completed measures of loneliness, social isolation, and romantic dependency near the beginning of the semester (Time 1) and approximately 6 weeks later toward the end of the semester (Time 2). Toward the beginning of the semester, there were no significant predictors of dependency. Toward the end of the semester, individuals who reported higher social isolation reported higher levels of dependency. Time 1 dependency also predicted Time 2 dependency. Future methodological directions and suggestions regarding the examination of perceptions of loneliness and relationship expectations are discussed.     

Psychosocial Intimacy,Relationships with Parents,and Well-being among Emerging Adults

For emerging adults, the development of psychosocial intimacy may be a key developmental task shaped by past parenting. In this study, 232 emerging adult, college students completed a questionnaire about their intimacy development, identity development, self-efficacy in romantic relationships, parenting (i.e., attachment styles, parental caring and overprotection, and parental challenge), and well-being (i.e, depressive symptoms, loneliness, happiness, and self-esteem). Findings indicate that identity development, low attachment avoidance, and self-efficacy in romantic relationships predicted intimacy development. Furthermore, those individuals with high intimacy have less loneliness, greater self-esteem, and more happiness than those with low intimacy. Achieving psychosocial intimacy may have benefits for well-being.     

Does Positive Mental Health in Adolescence Longitudinally Predict Healthy Transitions in Young Adulthood?

The present study examined the longer-term implications of adolescent positive mental health for successful young adult transitions. Positive mental health in adolescence was defined by indicators roughly corresponding to Seligman’s positive psychology PERMA framework (positive emotional experiences, engagement, relationships, purpose, and accomplishment), with the addition of health. Data were drawn from one of Australia’s longest running studies of social and emotional development (Australian Temperament Project, est. 1983, N = 2443), which has followed a large representative community sample from infancy to 27–28 years of age. In the analyzed sample of n = 999, positive mental health at 15–16 years was associated with indicators of career progression (educational attainment and perceived competence) and taking on citizenship responsibilities (volunteering and civic activities) over a decade later at 27–28 years. Mental health problems in adolescence were more relevant to establishing romantic partnerships in young adulthood: adolescent antisocial behaviors predicted higher likelihood of being in a relationship, while depressive symptoms predicted lower quality partnerships. The results suggest that successful transitions into young adult roles and responsibilities may be facilitated by targeted mental health promotion interventions designed to both foster positive mental health and address mental health difficulties in adolescence.     

Cross-sectional and Longitudinal associations in coping strategies and physical health outcomes among HIV-Positive youth

This study assessed whether coping styles had an influence on physical health outcomes either concurrently or longitudinally in a sample of HIV-positive youth. Coping styles were characterized as positive, passive, depressive withdrawal, and escapist. A cross-sectional latent variable analysis (N = 279) assessed associations among environmental stress, self-esteem, social support, coping styles, AIDS symptoms, and CD4 count. A more restricted longitudinal analysis (N = 174) tested associations among earlier environmental stress, self-esteem, coping styles, and AIDS symptoms at follow-up. CD4 count was not associated with coping styles in the cross-sectional analysis. Concurrent AIDS symptoms were significantly predicted by depressive withdrawal and environmental stress. A passive coping style modestly predicted more AIDS symptoms longitudinally. Correlates of perceived health and well-being of persons with HIV/AIDS are important to investigate in addition to more objective measures such as CD4 count that may not be amenable to change through coping style interventions alone.     

Accurate and biased perceptions of responsive support predict well-being

The current research examined effects of accurate and biased perceptions of romantic partners’ responsive support provision on perceivers’ well-being. Perceivers discussed a personal problem with their romantic partners (“targets”). Perceivers’ perceptions of targets’ responsive support following the discussion were related to external indicators of targets’ behavior, but these perceptions also were predicted by perceivers’ sentiments toward targets, suggesting that processes underlying perceivers’ perceptions were a blend of both accuracy and bias. In addition, both accurately perceived and biased perceptions of targets’ responsiveness predicted perceivers’ personal well-being (i.e., affect, coping, self-efficacy) and interpersonal well-being (i.e., more positive sentiments toward targets) immediately after the support interaction, 2 weeks later, and 6 months later. Results suggest that accurate and biased cognition during interpersonal interactions can have important consequences for perceivers’ personal and interpersonal well-being through effects on perceived partner responsiveness.     

The Roles of Social Support and Self-Efficacy in Physical Health’s Impact on Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms in Older Adults

Physical illness may precipitate psychological distress among older adults. This study examines whether social support and self-efficacy moderate the associations between physical health and depression and anxiety. Predictions were tested in 222 individuals age 60 or older presenting for help with worry. Physical health was assessed through self-report (subjective) and physical diagnoses (objective). Objective physical health did not have a significant association with depression or anxiety. Worse subjective physical health was associated with increased somatic anxiety, but not with depression or worry. The relationship between subjective physical health and depressive symptoms was moderated by self-efficacy and social support. As predicted, when self-efficacy was low, physical health had its strongest negative association with depressive symptoms such that as physical health improved, depressive symptoms also improved. However, the moderation effect was not as expected for social support; at high levels of social support, worse physical health was associated with increased depressive affect.     

Social Support and Postpartum Depression Revisited: The Traditional Female Role as Moderator among Mexican Women

Women who lack social support tend to have a higher risk of postpartum depression. The present study examined the traditional female role, understood here as the adoption of passive and submissive traits specific to Mexican women, as another risk factor for postpartum depressive symptomatology that interacts with social support. Using two waves of data from a longitudinal study of 210 adult Mexican women (20–44 years-old, M _age = 29.50 years, SD = 6.34), we found that lacking social support during the third trimester of their pregnancy was associated with greater depressive symptoms at 6 months in the postpartum, although this relationship depended on the level of endorsement of the traditional female role during pregnancy. Lower social support during pregnancy predicted greater postpartum depressive symptoms for women with higher endorsement of the traditional female role, even when accounting for prenatal depressive symptoms. These results suggest that Mexican women’s experience of social support may depend on their individual adherence to gender roles. Understanding the association between women’s traditional roles and social support in the risk for postpartum depression can improve prevention and educational programs for women at risk.     

The role of community context and psychological well-being for physical health: A dyadic study of military couples

Drawing from the social organizational theory of community action and change (SOAC) within a systemic biopsychosocial perspective, associations between community context (military community connections and satisfaction with military life), psychological well-being (depressive symptoms, anxiety, and self-efficacy), and physical health were examined for a sample of active duty service members and their civilian spouses (N = 236 couples) using an actor partner interdependence framework. Service members with higher levels of military community connections reported better psychological well-being. When civilian spouses were more satisfied with military life, both partners reported better psychological well-being. In turn, both spouses’ psychological well-being was related to their own reports of physical health. Statistically significant indirect effects were found between community contexts and spouses’ physical health. Enhancing community connections may be an important leverage point for supporting health and family readiness.