Introduction to the special series on integrating personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy using interpersonal assessment

The interpersonal paradigm in personality assessment employs multiple models, measures, and methods to examine the interpenetration of personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy. Its organizing framework is the nomological net of agency and communion, which are fundamental metaconstructs that can be conceptualized and measured at multiple levels ranging from broad interpersonal motives to stable interpersonal dispositions to specific interpersonal behaviors. This Special Series presents diverse research and clinical applications of interpersonal theory and assessment to (a) enhance diagnosis, case conceptualization, and treatment planning; (b) identify developmental catalysts of and current influences on psychopathological symptoms; and (c) articulate different ways in which personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy are interrelated. Each article demonstrates the integrative nature of interpersonal assessment while concurrently exemplifying the unique assumptions and methods of contemporary interpersonal diagnosis.     

Introduction to the Special Series on Integrating Personality,Psychopathology, and Psychotherapy Using Interpersonal Assessment

The interpersonal paradigm in personality assessment employs multiple models, measures, and methods to examine the interpenetration of personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy. Its organizing framework is the nomological net of agency and communion, which are fundamental metaconstructs that can be conceptualized and measured at multiple levels ranging from broad interpersonal motives to stable interpersonal dispositions to specific interpersonal behaviors. This Special Series presents diverse research and clinical applications of interpersonal theory and assessment to (a) enhance diagnosis, case conceptualization, and treatment planning; (b) identify developmental catalysts of and current influences on psychopathological symptoms; and (c) articulate different ways in which personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy are interrelated. Each article demonstrates the integrative nature of interpersonal assessment while concurrently exemplifying the unique assumptions and methods of contemporary interpersonal diagnosis.     

Toward a Model-Based Approach to the Clinical Assessment of Personality Psychopathology

Recent years have witnessed tremendous growth in the scope and sophistication of statistical methods available to explore the latent structure of psychopathology, involving continuous, discrete, and hybrid latent variables. The availability of such methods has fostered optimism that they can facilitate movement from classification primarily crafted through expert consensus to classification derived from empirically based models of psychopathological variation. The explication of diagnostic constructs with empirically supported structures can then facilitate the development of assessment tools that appropriately characterize these constructs. Our goal in this article is to illustrate how new statistical methods can inform conceptualization of personality psychopathology and therefore its assessment. We use magical thinking as an example, because both theory and earlier empirical work suggested the possibility of discrete aspects to the latent structure of personality psychopathology, particularly forms of psychopathology involving distortions of reality testing, yet other data suggest that personality psychopathology is generally continuous in nature. We directly compared the fit of a variety of latent variable models to magical thinking data from a sample enriched with clinically significant variation in psychotic symptomatology for explanatory purposes. Findings generally suggested a continuous latent variable model best represented magical thinking, but results varied somewhat depending on different indexes of model fit. We discuss the implications of the findings for classification and applied personality assessment. We also highlight some limitations of this type of approach that are illustrated by these data, including the importance of substantive interpretation, in addition to use of model fit indexes, when evaluating competing structural models.     

Qualitative and quantitative distinctions in personality disorder

The categorical-dimensional debate has catalyzed a wealth of empirical advances in the study of personality pathology. However, this debate is merely one articulation of a broader conceptual question regarding whether to define and describe psychopathology as a quantitatively extreme expression of normal functioning or as qualitatively distinct in its process. In this article I argue that dynamic models of personality (e.g., object relations, cognitive-affective processing system) offer the conceptual scaffolding to reconcile these seemingly incompatible approaches to characterizing the relationship between normal and pathological personality. I propose that advances in personality assessment that sample behavior and experiences intensively provide the empirical techniques, whereas interpersonal theory offers an integrative theoretical framework, for accomplishing this goal.     

Psychological Assessment Training in Clinical Psychology Doctoral Programs

We surveyed American Psychological Association–accredited clinical psychology doctoral programs' (n = 83) training in psychological assessment—specifically, their coverage of various assessment topics and tests in courses and practica, and whether the training was optional or required. We report results overall and separately per training model (clinical science, scientist-practitioner, and practitioner-focused). Overall, our results suggest that psychological assessment training is as active, or even more active, than in previous years. Areas of increased emphasis include clinical interviewing and psychometrics; multimethod, outcomes, health, and collaborative or therapeutic assessment; and different types of cognitive and self-report personality tests. All or almost all practice-focused programs offered training with the Thematic Apperception Test and Rorschach compared to about half of the scientist-practitioner programs and a third of the clinical science programs. Although almost all programs reported teaching multimethod assessment, what constitutes different methods of assessing psychopathology should be clarified in future studies because many programs appear to rely on one method—self-report (especially clinical science programs). Although doctoral programs covered many assessment topics and tests in didactic courses, there appears to be a shortage of program-run opportunities for students to obtain applied assessment training. Finally, we encourage doctoral programs to be familiar with (a) internships' assessment expectations and opportunities, (b) the professional guidelines for assessment training, and (c) the American Psychological Association's requirements for preinternship assessment competencies.     

An interpersonal perspective on the personality assessment process

Many aspects of therapeutic approaches to the personality assessment process derived from or are consistent with Sullivan's interpersonal approach to clinical practice, but the link between such approaches and contemporary interpersonal theory remains underdeveloped. In this article, I argue that contemporary interpersonal theory provides a valuable framework within which to conceptualize the personality assessment process. Specifically, I argue that interpersonal models can parsimoniously represent client behavior and can facilitate discussions of assessment data with assessees. Further, I show that hypotheses on the therapeutic mechanisms of personality assessment can be reframed in contemporary interpersonal metatheory so that they can be compared and tested directly.     

An Interpersonal Perspective on the Personality Assessment Process

Many aspects of therapeutic approaches to the personality assessment process derived from or are consistent with Sullivan's interpersonal approach to clinical practice, but the link between such approaches and contemporary interpersonal theory remains underdeveloped. In this article, I argue that contemporary interpersonal theory provides a valuable framework within which to conceptualize the personality assessment process. Specifically, I argue that interpersonal models can parsimoniously represent client behavior and can facilitate discussions of assessment data with assessees. Further, I show that hypotheses on the therapeutic mechanisms of personality assessment can be reframed in contemporary interpersonal metatheory so that they can be compared and tested directly.     

Assessing normal and abnormal personality functioning: strengths and weaknesses of self-report, observer, and performance-based methods

Assessing personality characteristics; distinguishing the boundaries between normal and abnormal functioning; identifying impairment in the domains of work, interpersonal relationships, and emotional state due to maladaptive personality traits; and translating these findings into effective, appropriate treatment interventions is a complicated endeavor. Valid, reliable conclusions about an individual's personality functioning and adjustment cannot be reached unless one has accurate information about that person's patterns of behavior, cognitions, emotions, and interpersonal relationships. I discuss strengths and weaknesses of assessment approaches utilizing explicit assessment methods, such as self-report measures and clinical interviews; information obtained from knowledgeable observers; and performance-based, implicit assessment methods such as the Rorschach Comprehensive System (Exner, 2003). In contrast to explicit methods of assessment, implicit methods can provide salient information about a personality construct whether or not individuals have accurately conceptualized that construct, have weighed how the construct describes them, are self-aware, and are willing to openly provide information relevant to that construct. I propose that the accuracy of conclusions about an individual's personality style, problems in adjustment, and treatment needs may be improved if conclusion are based on a multimethod assessment approach that incorporates information gathered using explicit assessment methods, information provided by significant others, and data from performance-based or implicit measures of personality.     

Introduction to the Special Section on Mixture Modeling in Personality Assessment

Latent variable models offer a conceptual and statistical framework for evaluating the underlying structure of psychological constructs, including personality and psychopathology. Complex structures that combine or compare categorical and dimensional latent variables can be accommodated using mixture modeling approaches, which provide a powerful framework for testing nuanced theories about psychological structure. This special series includes introductory primers on cross-sectional and longitudinal mixture modeling, in addition to empirical examples applying these techniques to real-world data collected in clinical settings. This group of articles is designed to introduce personality assessment scientists and practitioners to a general latent variable framework that we hope will stimulate new research and application of mixture models to the assessment of personality and its pathology.     

Personality Assessment in the Diagnostic Manuals: On Mindfulness,Multiple Methods,and Test Score Discontinuities

Recent controversies have illuminated the strengths and limitations of different frameworks for conceptualizing personality pathology (e.g., trait perspectives, categorical models), and stimulated debate regarding how best to diagnose personality disorders (PDs) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), and in other diagnostic systems (i.e., the International Classification of Diseases, the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual). In this article I argue that regardless of how PDs are conceptualized and which diagnostic system is employed, multimethod assessment must play a central role in PD diagnosis. By complementing self-reports with evidence from other domains (e.g., performance-based tests), a broader range of psychological processes are engaged in the patient, and the impact of self-perception and self-presentation biases can be better understood. By providing the assessor with evidence drawn from multiple modalities, some of which provide converging patterns and some of which yield divergent results, a multimethod assessment compels the assessor to engage this evidence more deeply. The mindful processing that ensues can help minimize the deleterious impact of naturally occurring information processing bias and distortion on the part of the clinician (e.g., heuristics, attribution errors), bringing greater clarity to the synthesis and integration of assessment data.     

Thinking outside the ballot box

A deeply heterogeneous set of ideological cohorts have shaped the course of history. From anarchists and authoritarians to Zionists and Zapatistas, the expansive alphabet of politics demands an equally expansive psychological vocabulary to describe political belief systems. We propose that constructing such a vocabulary is best facilitated by decentering familiar models that emphasize psychological differences between leftists and rightists. Synthesizing recent developments in the fields of personality, political science, and psychopathology, we characterize individual variation in politics as high-dimensional, heterarchical, intrapersonally eclectic, and contextually shaped and activated. Developing a data-driven taxonomic model of political-psychological phenomena will help create a foundational base of knowledge within political psychology that is more rigorous, more replicable, and certainly richer to investigate.     

Incorporating narrative identity into structural approaches to personality and psychopathology

Structural models that connect personality and psychopathology have tended to adopt a somewhat narrow view of personality, focused on dispositional traits. In this paper, we lay the groundwork for incorporating narrative identity into future research on the structure of personality and psychopathology. Narrative identity is a well-mapped domain of personality, one with demonstrated incremental validity in the association with and prediction of psychological well-being. In this paper, we provide a brief overview of the construct of narrative identity, situate it within the broader endeavor of integrating basic personality science with the science of psychopathology, particularly involving personality pathology, and describe an agenda for future research on this vital and largely overlooked topic.     

Exploring Personality with the Interpersonal Circumplex

The interpersonal circumplex can serve as both companion and guide for those interested in exploring the interpersonal domain of personality. This article offers a relatively nontechnical overview of the model and its various applications in the study of personality. I begin by defining the interpersonal circumplex, its structure and in what sense it is 'interpersonal'. As part of that, I will briefly consider how circumplex measures of personality, such as the Interpersonal Adjective Scales, are typically evaluated for fit to the model. I will next describe applications of the model for exploring both the idiographic (person-centered) and nomothetic (variable-centered) realms of personality. In person-centered research, the circumplex leads to useful ways of summarizing the basic interpersonal features of a given individual. In variable-centered research, the circumplex can help elucidate the essential interpersonal meaning of personality constructs such as traits, problems, and motives. To explain how the circumplex can help us explore personality – idiographically and nomothetically – I will draw on a variety of studies, including several recent studies that extend the model in new ways.     

Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies

ABSTRACT— Psychological researchers increasingly recognize that human behavior reflects a complex interplay of universal human capacities, cultural responses to unique histories and circumstances, and individual differences. Many psychological processes appear to reflect culturally specific instantiations of universal capacities. Current integrative research focuses on further clarifying definitions of universality and on refining methods for identifying universal and cultural components of psychological processes. In this article, we consider implications of this emerging integration. To illustrate possible implications for psychology, we apply it to the study of psychopathology. We report on formal models that explain why some cultures embrace dysfunction among members. We then use the integrative framework to describe methods for determining whether putative disorders bring universal or contextual life dysfunction and to clarify etiological models of three disorders. Models of psychopathology can be more informed and precise if they include careful consideration of both universal and cultural influences on behavior.     

A conceptual model and case study for the psychological assessment of hysterical pseudo-seizures with the Rorschach

Conceptual models are being increasingly utilized to guide psychological assessment of complex clinical problems. In this article, I present a conceptual model to direct the assessment of personality processes involved in producing hysterical pseudo-seizures. Pathological personality processes present in hysterical reactions are outlined. Rorschach parameters that have been validated and that are therefore considered good indicators of the relevant personality processes are presented. A case study of a patient with both documented genuine and hysterical pseudo-seizures demonstrates use of the model. I offer a treatment plan that is related to the psychological structure of the patient. Use of this model may improve psychological consultation in medical settings.     

Exploring the construct validity of the social cognition and object relations scale in a clinical sample

The Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale-Global rating method (SCORS-G; Stein, Hilsenroth, Slavin-Mulford, & Pinsker, 2011; Westen, 1995) measures the quality of object relations in narrative material. This study employed a multimethod approach to explore the structure and construct validity of the SCORS-G. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Murray, 1943) was administered to 59 patients referred for psychological assessment at a large Northeastern U.S. hospital. The resulting 301 TAT narratives were rated using the SCORS-G method. The 8 SCORS variables were found to have high interrater reliability and good internal consistency. Principal components analysis revealed a 3-component solution with components tapping emotions/affect regulation in relationships, self-image, and aspects of cognition. Next, the construct validity of the SCORS-G components was explored using measures of intellectual and executive functioning, psychopathology, and normal personality. The 3 SCORS-G components showed unique and theoretically meaningful relationships across these broad and diverse psychological measures. This study demonstrates the value of using a standardized scoring method, like the SCORS-G, to reveal the rich and complex nature of narrative material.     

A Developmental Psychopathology and Neurobiological Model of Borderline Personality Disorder in Adolescence

The antecedents and risk factors and for developing borderline personality disorder (BPD) are now well documented, but there is a paucity of developmental models to understand the key processes through which they impact on the development of BPD in adolescents. In this article, we present a developmental psychopathology model of BPD in adolescence and link the difficulties adolescents with BPD have with impulsivity and self regulation, with risk factors such as genetic vulnerability, parenting and trauma. We propose a number of psychological processes through which these risk factors undermine personal and interpersonal functioning, and makes it particularly difficult to engage with the challenges of adolescence. These key psychological processes undermine the integration of the self, with extreme unintegrated affects and extreme representations of self and others, undermining the capacity to mentalize. We then make links to possible neurobiological underpinnings of the disturbances in affect, Theory of Mind and interpersonal difficulties in adolescents with BPD.     

环形模型:整合人格研究的一种取向

环形模型是一种用于描述具有系统有序的相关模式的一组变量的取向,它可作为研究思路、形成待检验的理论假设、分析方法、检验其他结构的法则网络系统,具有强有力的理论基础和明确的数学属性,是人格和社会心理学中一个重要的工具。人际环形模型对于人际特质结构的探讨,对人际相关心理结构的检验,以及对于人际行为的描述和预测,都有其独特的效力,是以五因素人格特质模型为代表的因素模型的一个重要互补且兼容的模型。本文就人际环形模型的理论与实践背景加以介绍,并用人际形容词量表(IAS-R)的实证数据来演示环形模型的分析和检验过程,从而对环形模型的数学属性及其分析检验方式加以阐释。最后论述了该模型对于传统人际评价的理解以及本土人格与社会心理研究的意义。     

Journeys through the valley of death: multimethod psychological assessment and personality transformation in long-term psychotherapy

The Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual (PDM Task Force, 2006) is based on the assumption that an in-depth understanding of clients' underlying emotional, personality, and interpersonal patterns will facilitate their treatment. In this article I show how such an understanding can be achieved through multimethod psychological assessment, and how useful such information can be in long-term psychotherapy with high-achieving, successful clients who struggle with forming and maintaining intimate relationships. Such treatments are extremely difficult, because when these clients attach to their psychotherapists, many of them temporarily become more symptomatic. I illustrate these points with a detailed account of my long-term therapy with a resilient but highly traumatized young man. Repeated use of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Disorder-2 (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) and Rorschach with my client helped guide us in our work, and also helped create an important therapeutic "opening" into the underlying traumatic material. This and other experiences have convinced me that it is extremely useful for psychologists to have training in both assessment and psychotherapy.     

父母行为控制、心理控制与高中生消极社会适应的关系：人际自立和校园排斥的序列中介作用

基于自我决定理论和人与环境互动理论,研究考察了父母行为控制、心理控制与高中生消极社会适应的关系,以及人际自立与校园排斥的中介效应。采用父母控制问卷、青少年人际自立量表、青少年校园排斥问卷、消极社会适应问卷对辽宁省3所中学的1209名高中生进行施测。结果发现:(1)父母行为控制对高中生消极社会适应无明显预测作用,心理控制对消极社会适应具有正向预测作用;(2)人际自立和校园排斥在父母控制与消极社会适应之间发挥中介作用。具体而言,父母行为控制只能通过人际自立的单独作用以及人际自立与校园排斥的序列中介作用预测高中生消极社会适应;父母心理控制既能直接预测消极社会适应,还能分别通过人际自立和校园排斥的单独作用,以及人际自立与校园排斥的序列中介作用预测高中生消极社会适应。研究最终梳理出一条“父母教养→人格发展→人际反馈→适应结果”的理论作用机制。