Independent manipulation of emotion in an emotional stroop task using classical conditioning

The effects of emotional connotation on emotional Stroop interference in anxiety were examined. First, a classical conditioning paradigm was used in which neutral words and nonwords were paired with either negative or neutral pictures. These conditioned stimuli were then presented in an emotional Stroop paradigm. Finally, participants rated each word and nonword for emotional connotation. The high-anxious group demonstrated significant interference for the nonwords that had been negatively conditioned, and these effects did not dissipate over time. The affective rating data supported the view that nonwords, but not the words had been successfully conditioned in the high-anxious group. This experiment provides evidence for the importance of emotional connotation rather than confounded semantic factors in the emotional Stroop effect.     

The choices and preferences of nursery school children

After a period of equal reinforcement for choices of any job revealed which of 10 jobs each of 24 preschool children preferred and did not prefer, token payment became dependent on particular choices. Some children received tokens only for choosing previously non-preferred jobs, others for choosing previously preferred jobs. When tokens depended on choosing the nonpreferred jobs, those came to be preferred. When tokens depended on choosing the preferred jobs, the preferences were strengthened. The effects were replicated both within and between subjects, except in the case of one boy who consistently avoided token pay.     

Differentiation between vicarious instigation and classical conditioning of electrodermal responses

In past research of vicarious conditioning when a conditioned stimulus (CS) was repeatedly presented both to a model and an observer, the observer's reaction to the CS may have been the result of a vicariously conditioned reaction to the CS, as well as a vicariously instigated reaction to the inferred emotional state of the model who anticipates the reception of a noxious stimulus when the CS is presented. In order to partial out these two reactions, the present experiment employed 32 subjects of both sexes who took part in a two-group study of differential, vicarious classical conditioning of skin conductance responses. In one of the group, the tones serving as CS+ and CS- and which preceded the aversive and non aversive events to the mode, were presented over earphones to both the confederate model and the observer subject. In the second group, only the subjects had earphones on and were led to believe that the model was not aware of the CS presentations. This eliminated the possibility of vicariously instigated reactions. Although the conditioning effects produced in the present study were somewhat weak, results clearly showed equal levels of vicarious instigation and conditioning in the two groups. These results indicate that the potential confounding of these two reactions studies has not significantly affected result or conclusions from previous studies.     

Sequential transfer to related oddity problems by nursery school children

The initial learning and subsequent transfer of an oddity principle by children between 4 and 5 years of age were studied. The initial standard oddity problem was learned quickly by most of the children. A high level of performance was maintained on both transfer sets. The results were related to limitations placed on the oddity solutions learned by 4-year-olds by particular aspects of the original learning context.     

Effects of emotional valence and arousal manipulation on eyeblink classical conditioning and autonomic measures

Using a classical eyeblink conditioning paradigm, we have previously shown that the rate of acquisition of a conditioned response may be manipulated by engaging subjects in background tasks of varying complexity concurrent to conditioning. To further examine the influence of the background environment on conditioning, a picture set designed to elicit emotional responses, the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), was presented to subjects during classical eyeblink conditioning. The results suggest that eyeblink conditioning does appear to be sensitive to contextual manipulations of arousal. Pictures rated as very arousing were found to engage subjects enough to enhance learning, although not to the point that autonomic functions were significantly altered between picture groups. We suggest that group differences in learning may be a result of either novelty of, or vigilance to, interesting pictures rather than as a direct result of physiological arousal.     

Postnatal development of respiratory and vocal responses during aversive classical conditioning in cats

Respiratory rate, respiration amplitude, and vocal responses were recorded in cats of different ages during classic conditioning. Vocal responses to the conditional stimulus (CS) appeared first in 8-week-old kittens, and became prominent at older ages. An increase in respiration rate occurred after the onset of the CS in cats of all ages. Similarly, the decrease of respiration amplitude was observed at all ages, but only in 8-week-old and older subjects did this response resemble an adult pattern. In 4-week-old kittens the response was characterized by an early and brief peak, suggesting an alpha conditional response (CR). Clear and significant discrimination between a warning and a safety signal was present in both respiratory and vocal responses after the age of 8 weeks.     

PC operating system for measuring discrete biological responses during classical conditioning

A software package, written in C source code for MS-DOS 5.0 or higher IBM-compatible computers, was developed for the classical conditioning of discrete biological responses. The program’s primary functions include collecting and storing conditioning parameters, controlling presentation of stimuli, transforming discrete analog responses into dependent measures (e.g., CR frequencies and various measures of response topography), and generating data sets for use with commercial PC statistical packages. These functions were implemented in a windows-based user interface to increase the experimenter’s ease of use and to maximize efficiency in performing experimental procedures. Scrollable windows provide detailed visual displays that permit monitoring responses during conditioning and a review of each trial after the session is over. Additional software tools aid the visual inspection of response topographies, data manipulation, and calibration of the experimental apparatus. An overview of the system, its design objectives, and the user interface is presented.     

Relationship between birth order and leadership style for nursery school children

36 nursery school children were given a revised form of Fiedler's (1967) least preferred co-worker scale designated as the least preferred playmate scale. The purpose was to investigate the relationship between least preferred playmate scores and the birth order of young children. A 2 X 2 contingency table was constructed between birth order (first and later born) and leadership style (high and low). The resulting chi squares were insignificant for the total population and for males. However, for females the results were significant with a higher percentage of firstborns being task-oriented (low score) and a higher percentage of later borns being relation-oriented (high score).     

Mothers' subjective employment experiences and the behaviour of their nursery school children

Most research on the effects of maternal employment on children has followed the ‘maternal deprivation’ hypothesis, which focuses on differences in the behaviour of children of employed and non-employed mothers. Yet this framework may have impeded an examination of a more relevant question, namely the impact of mothers' employment-related experiences. Accordingly, this study assesses the influence of mothers' job satisfaction, job involvement and role conflict on the behaviour of their nursery school sons and daughters (n=46 and 45 respectively). The effects of maternal employment on their nursery school children were found to be mediated by (a) the nature and quality of the employment experience (i.e. positive or negative), (b) the type of child behaviour assessed, and (c) the sex of the child. Mothers' job satisfaction was positively associated with daughters' self-control and negatively with conduct problems; their role conflict was negatively related to sons' and daughters' self-control, and positively associated with sons' conduct problems and daughters' immaturity. These results support the hypothesis that the quality of the maternal employment experience influences nursery school children's behaviour.     

The development of emotional responses to music in young children

Children aged 3 to 4 and 7 to 8 years listened to eight tunes which were either in the major or minor mode and either unaccompanied melody or harmonized. For each tune children selected one of two schematic faces chosen to depict happy or sad facial expressions. Children 7 to 8 years old showed a significant major-happy and minor-sad connotation, which was also shown by adults. However 3 to 4 year-olds did not show any such significant association between musical mode and emotional response. Harmonic accompaniment significantly increased the frequency of happy responses. The results support the idea of a learned association between mode and emotional response. We thank the teachers and children of Mauldeth Road County Primary School and Ladybarn Primary School, Manchester, for their cooperation, and we thank Debra Raye and Daniela Milone for help with testing.