The influence of gender and temperament on children's interaction with a baby

This study examined gender differences in children's interaction with a baby who visited their day-care center over several weeks. Twenty-two children ranging in age from 47 to 64 months of age participated. The children's teacher filled out a questionnaire assessing each child's extraversion, activity level, and loudness. A female baby visited the day care center from one to three times a week over a two-month period. Each child's interactions with the baby were observed twice. Active, outgoing, loud girls were much more likely to interact with the baby than either quiet girls or any boys. Several of these highly interactive girls had no younger siblings. Children were found to interact with the baby more on their second observation.The research reported here was supported by a grant from the Purdue Research Foundation. I would like to thank Connie Clauss for her help with data collection.     

The influence of gender on children's ratings of fear in self and same-aged peers

In the present study, gender differences in children's fear were examined. Nine-year-old children were asked to rate their own fears, the fears of their peers of the opposite gender, and the fears of their peers of the same gender, using the Fear Survey Schedule for Children--Revised (Ollendick, 1983). Consistent with previous investigations, the results revealed that boys rated themselves as less fearful than girls. In addition, both male and female judges rated "other boys" as less afraid than "other girls." These findings emerged whether fear was examined in terms of intensity or prevalence. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Asymmetries in peer interaction: The effect of social representations of gender and knowledge asymmetry on children's cognitive development

This study examines the role of social representations of gender and knowledge as sources of asymmetry on the features of children's interactions as well as on their cognitive development. The research was carried through an innovative pre‐test, first interaction, second interaction, post‐test design. One hundred fifty‐nine children of the same age (6.5–7.5 years old) but of different levels of knowledge of a spatial‐transformation task collaborated in same‐sex and opposite‐sex dyads to find a joint solution. In the first interaction, a child less developmentally advanced (NC) had to work with a child more developmentally advanced (TC), whereas in the second interaction of the same gender composition, the same NC had to work with a fresh NC. Cognitive progress was assessed using pre‐test to post‐test gains. The results revealed that the gender composition of the pairs and knowledge asymmetry influence not only the behavioral patterns and strategies that each partner employs in the interaction but also the cognitive outcomes of the children. These findings shed more light to the process through which socio‐cognitive conflict gets resolved, which was considered until now a “black box.” Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of race and ethnicity on psychiatric diagnoses and clinical characteristics of children and adolescents in children's services

This study examined the influence of race and ethnicity on psychiatric diagnoses and clinical characteristics of 1,189 children and adolescents participating in the federally funded Comprehensive Community Mental Health Services for Children and Their Families Program. Results showed that after controlling for age, gender, functional impairment, and socioeconomic status, there were significant race and ethnicity effects on diagnosis and clinical characteristics. Black and Native Hawaiian youth were more likely than White youth to be diagnosed with disruptive behavioral disorders. Hispanic and Native Hawaiian youth were less likely than White youth to be diagnosed with depression or dysthymia. Black, Asian American, and Native Hawaiian youth were rated as exhibiting less internalizing behavior problems than White youth. Implications for research, practice, and policy are discussed.     

The effects of peer ostracism on children's cognitive processes

In adults, experiences of social exclusion have been shown to not only adversely affect mood and threaten primary needs, but also to disrupt cognitive processes. The aim of this study was to provide an initial test of the effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes in children (N = 55; aged 8–12 years). Ostracism was simulated experimentally using the Cyberball paradigm—a computer-based ball-throwing game that participants believed they were playing with two peers over the internet. Following this, participants were administered subtests from the Working Memory Test Battery for Children. Girls who were ostensibly ignored during the game demonstrated poorer cognitive performance than those who were included by their co-players, while boys did not. Findings are discussed in relation to those previously reported in adult research and evidence of gender-specific correlates of relational aggression in children and adolescents.     

The influence of age, gender, and having a younger sibling on children's knowledge about babies.

This article reports on two studies designed to measure 4- to 7-year-old children's knowledge about babies and its relationship to gender role development. In Study 1, children were asked several questions about babies and were given the Sex Role Learning Index (SERLI; Edelbrock & Sugawara, 1978). Girls provided more answers to one question, and children with younger siblings provided more answers to another. Overall, however, there were few relationships between knowledge about babies and gender role development. The second study measured knowledge about babies with two measures. The first measure asked children to identify foods that babies could eat and activities babies were capable of doing. The second measure asked children to identify the names and uses of certain objects. Older children scored higher on the foods and activities measure. Children who had younger siblings performed better on the objects measure. Gender and gender role development showed little relationship to knowledge about babies.     

The combined effects of teacher-child and peer relationships on children's social-emotional adjustment

Teachers and peers represent two important dimensions of the classroom social ecology that have important implications for children's social-emotional adjustment. This study examined the combined effects of teacher-child relationships (TCR) and peer relationships for 6–7 year-old children on their social-emotional adjustment at 8–9 years. The sample was comprised of children and their teachers participating in the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (n = 2857). Teachers reported on TCR, peer relationships, and children's emotional well-being, and children provided self-reported self-concept and school liking during a face-to-face interview. The analytic approach extends previous research by modeling TCR and peer relationships in combination, using cluster analysis to understand the nature of 6–7 year-old children's social relationships in the classroom. Five distinct profiles of children were identified: adaptive, teacher-oriented, teacher-child conflict prominent, non-adaptive, and invisible. The adaptive profile had the best outcomes on all three aspects of social-emotional adjustment at age 8–9; the non-adaptive profile had the poorest outcomes, and the invisible group was mid-range. The teacher-oriented and teacher-child conflict prominent groups had mixed outcomes for social-emotional adjustment. Implications for school psychologists and teachers are discussed.     

The stability and consequences of young children's same-sex peer interactions

This article addresses whether young children's play-partner choices are stable over time and how these choices influence behavior. Sixty-one children (28 boys and 33 girls; mean age = 53 months) were observed over 6 months, and type of play behavior and sex of play partners were recorded. Children's partner preferences were highly sex differentiated and stable over time, especially when larger aggregates of data were used. Two types of consequences were identified: a binary effect that influenced differences between the sexes and a social dosage effect that influenced variations within the sexes. The binary effect reflected a pattern in which the more both girls and boys played with same-sex partners, the more their behavior became sex differentiated. The social dosage effect reflected a pattern in which variations in levels of same-sex play in the fall contributed significantly to variations in the spring above initial levels of the target behaviors.     

The phenomenology of children's influence on parents

Starting from the core systemic premise that humans influence each other, this paper focuses on child influences in the bidirectional parent–child relationship. Following a co‐constructionist approach on bidirectionality, meaning constructions of children and their parents concerning child influences are explored. The authors used in‐depth interviews separately with children and their parents. Phenomenological analysis shows similarities and differences in children's and parents' thinking. Both stress the difficulty and existential dimension of the subject and refer to this influence as mainly unintentional. In particular, children disentangle influence from power. Children focus on the responsiveness of their parents. Parents emphasize the overwhelming effects on their personal development. The importance of making room for constructive child influences in family therapy is acknowledged.     

The effects of noise and gender on children's episodic and semantic memory

The main objectives in the present study were to examine meaningful irrelevant speech and road traffic noise effects on episodic and semantic memory, and to evaluate whether gender differences in memory performance interact with noise. A total of 96 subjects, aged 13-14 years (n = 16 boys and 16 girls in each of three groups), were randomly assigned to a silent or two noise conditions. Noise effects found were restricted to impairments from meaningful irrelevant speech on recognition and cued recall of a text in episodic memory and of word comprehension in semantic memory. The obtained noise effect suggests that the meaning of the speech were processed semantically by the pupils, which reduced their ability to comprehend a text that also involved processing of meaning. Meaningful irrelevant speech was also assumed to cause a poorer access to the knowledge base in semantic memory. Girls outperformed boys in episodic and semantic memory materials, but these differences did not interact with noise.     

The effect of peer collaboration on children's problem‐solving ability

Background. A Vygotskian framework links cognitive change to collaborative interaction with a more competent partner whereas a Piagetian perspective supports the view that cognitive conflict arising from peer interaction leads to cognitive change. Aims. The study investigated the effect of collaborative learning on children's problem‐solving ability and whether differences in knowledge status or the use of explanatory language were contributing factors. Sample. Participants were 100 Year 2 children (aged between 6 and 7 years), from schools in high socio‐economic areas, who individually completed a pre‐ and post‐test comprising a block sorting task. Method. During the experimental phase, children completed a card sorting activity, either individually or in same‐gender dyads. The dyads consisted of same or different ability children who operated under either a ‘talk’ or ‘no‐talk’ condition. Results. It was found that children who collaborated collectively obtained a significantly higher number of correct sorts than children who worked individually. However, post‐testing indicated that only those children of lower sorting ability who collaborated with higher sorting ability peers showed a significant improvement in sorting ability from pre‐test scores. In addition, it was found that when analysis was limited to this particular group, only those children who were required to explain the sort for their partner to carry out improved significantly from pre‐ to post‐test. Conclusion. It is suggested that perhaps the two theoretical positions are not as mutually exclusive as they are often portrayed. Implications of these findings for teachers and children's learning are also discussed.     

Stability of aggressive behaviors and children's peer relationships

The present research longitudinally evaluated the association of group and dyadic peer relation factors to the stability of aggression. Beginning in grades 2 through 5, children (N = 212) completed peer nominations for aggressive behaviors, sociometric ratings, sociometric nominations (like most and like least), and friendship nominations for 2 successive years. Children were classified into four Stability of Aggression Groups: Never Aggressive, Stable Aggressive, Discontinued Aggression, Became Aggressive. Aggressive children were evaluated as more disliked at each time of testing (i.e., Stable Aggressive and Discontinued Aggression at Time 1; Stable Aggressive and Became Aggressive at Time 2). Furthermore, sociometric ratings of children at Time 1 who became aggressive by Time 2 foreshadowed this transition. Children who discontinued aggressive behaviors were friends with children who were evaluated by peers as significantly less aggressive than the friends of children who continued aggressive behaviors. These findings suggest that early identification of children at risk for developing aggressive behavior may be possible through group‐level peer evaluations, and identification of those at risk for continuing aggressive behavior may be possible through the evaluation of special dyadic friendships. Aggr. Behav. 26:277–290, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Perceptions of methylphenidate effects on hyperactive children's peer interactions

The behavioral constructs that emerge from observers' openended impressions of methylphenidate effects on the social behaviors of hyperactive children were examined. Ninety-six undergraduates observed videotapes of two different hyperactive target boys, each playing an interaction game with three peers. One target was taking methylphenidate and the other was taking placebo. The valence and content of observers' social perceptions were analyzed. Overall, more negative than positive behaviors were detected, a pattern more pronounced for the placebo than for the medication condition. Interestingly, placebo targets received negative evaluations for poorly controlled behaviors such as noncompliance, aggression, and disruption, but medicated targets received negative evaluations for social inhibition—passive and submissive behaviors. In contrast, the boys' medication state did not consistently influence observers' perceptions of positive social behaviors. Discussion focused on the extent and consequences of medicationrelated increases in social disengagement and on the ultimate impact of stimulant treatment on hyperactive children's social worlds.A preliminary report of this study was presented at the 1990 meeting of the Society for Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, Costa Mesa, CA. We are grateful for the assistance of Pam Ajang, Keri Hom, and Scott Gutentag, and for support from the Fernald Child Study Center at UCLA.     

The influence of shyness on children's test performance

Background: Research has shown that shy children differ from their peers not only in their use of language in routine social encounters but also in formal assessments of their language development, including psychometric tests of vocabulary. There has been little examination of factors contributing to these individual differences. Aims: To investigate cognitive‐competence and social anxiety interpretations of differences in children's performance on tests of vocabulary. To examine the performance of shy and less shy children under different conditions of test administration, individually with an examiner or among their peers within the familiar classroom setting. Sample: The sample consisted of 240 Year 5 pupils (122 male, 118 female) from 24 primary schools. Method: Shy and less shy children, identified by teacher nomination and checklist ratings, completed vocabulary and mental arithmetic tests in one of three conditions, in a between‐subjects design. The conditions varied individual and group administration, and oral and written responses. Results: The conditions of test administration influenced the vocabulary test performance of shy children. They performed significantly more poorly than their peers in the two face‐to‐face conditions but not in the group test condition. A comparable trend for the arithmetic test was not statistically significant. Across the sample as a whole, shyness correlated significantly with test scores. Conclusions: Shyness does influence children's cognitive test performance and its impact is larger when children are tested face‐to‐face rather than in a more anonymous group setting. The results are of significance for theories of shyness and have implications for the assessment of schoolchildren.     

The influence of age and gender on ultra-rapid categorization

ABSTRACT

In ultra-rapid categorization studies, population-level reaction time differences in performance are consistently reported. In a previous study, we replicated these findings and also observed consistent gender differences in young adults (18–24 years old). We now tested a group of adolescents (11–16 years old) on the same ultra-rapid categorization tasks. Results indicated that age had a significant impact on categorization performance. Although women outperformed men during adulthood, this effect reversed in adolescence (boys faster than girls). This gender x age interaction for categorizing meaningful (non-)social visual scenes could be caused by gender-specific development processes underlying emotion regulation strategies and/or context sensitivity.     

Multicultural psychology: bringing together gender and ethnicity

This article suggests that just as gender studies should not proceed without consideration of the various contexts in which men and women behave, similarly multicultural psychology should recognize gender, among other characteristics in the populations examined. Focusing on ethnic group women, who are understudied, develops this theme. Two arguments are proposed: (a) that gender must be recognized as impinging on every aspect of psychological research and practice, and (b) that gender should be considered an aspect of culture, just as ethnicity now is. The literature in psychology is reviewed to demonstrate how erroneous beliefs and exclusion operate to minimize examination of ethnicity and gender. Finally, a call to advocacy is made for attention to complexity.     

The influence of suspect ethnicity and evidence direction on alibi credibility assessment

We investigated whether evidence direction (incriminating versus exonerating) moderated the influence of intergroup bias on alibi credibility assessments. Israeli-Jewish participants (n = 160) assessed the credibility of an alibi statement provided by either an Israeli-Jewish or an Israeli-Arab suspect. Along with the alibi statement, half of the participants were presented with incriminating evidence, while the other half were presented with exonerating evidence. The results indicated that evidence direction influenced credibility assessment regarding both in-group and out-group suspects. Specifically, under incriminating evidence, Israeli-Jewish suspects were perceived as more deceptive than Israeli-Arab suspects, whereas under exonerating evidence, no such differences were found. These results emphasize the significance of group bias in assessing the credibility of alibi statements.     

The social representation of material culture and gender in children's books

This study examined the gender-typed portrayal of material culture in Caldecott Award children's books published between 1937 and 1989. Analyses of illustrations found that a larger proportion of female characters was shown using household artifacts, and a larger proportion of male characters was depicted using nondomestic production artifacts. Contrast analyses revealed no change over time in the proportions of female characters portrayed using household and production artifacts. Children's exposure to this representation may result in gender-linked modeling effects on preferences and skills related to technology and other material culture.Portions of this research were presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Society, June 21, 1992, San Diego, CA. The authors wish to thank Loretta Rieser-Danner, Leigh Shaffer, and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on earlier drafts.     

The effects of three different television programs on young children's peer interactions and toy play

The current study investigated the impact of different television programming on the social interactions and toy play of preschool children. Same-sex pairs of young children were observed during three types of television programs: cartoons, Sesame Street, and situation comedies. Children were also observed when the television screen was black. Children visually attended to the cartoons the most, Sesame Street less often, and the situation comedy the least. Cartoons dramatically depressed social interaction. Sesame Street elicited the most verbal imitation. Both Sesame Street and the situation comedy allowed the children to divide activity among their peers, the toys, and the television program. Girls verbally imitated program content more than boys. This pattern of findings remained after the children's visual attention to the television was statistically controlled. Several developmental trends were detected. The image of children “mesmerized” in front of the television set, foresaking social interactions and active involvement with their object environment, held true for only one type of programming, namely, cartoons. During the other programs, the children remained active and socially involved.