Application of multiple baseline designs in behavior analytic research: Evidence for the influence of new guidelines

The multiple baseline (MBL) design is a single‐case experimental design that has both research and applied utility. Although the concurrent and nonconcurrent MBL variants are valid designs, each rules out different threats to internal validity. To help clarify these differences, studies have provided guidelines for graphically depicting and distinguishing between concurrent and nonconcurrent MBLs. This study assessed the extent to which data‐presentation guidelines have been adopted by examining single‐case experimental design studies published in 3 behavior‐analytic journals from 2000 to 2015. Results suggest that data‐depiction guidelines have increased correct identification of concurrent multiple baseline designs but also indicate that these guidelines have not been universally adopted.     

Recommendations for reporting multiple‐baseline designs across participants

Two recommendations are offered for reporting multiple‐baseline designs across participants. These recommendations will better enable readers to (a) distinguish concurrent from nonconcurrent multiple‐baseline designs and (b) determine the temporal order in which sessions were conducted in concurrent multiple‐baseline designs. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

APPLICATIONS OF A SEQUENTIAL ALTERNATING TREATMENTS DESIGN

We propose the use of a combined version of the alternating treatments and multiple baseline designs in situations in which a traditional baseline (no treatment) condition either does not provide an adequate contrast condition or is not feasible or practical due to clinical constraints. We refer to this design as a sequential alternating treatments design because two treatments are initially implemented in a random or counterbalanced fashion and are followed by a sequential change in one or both treatments across settings, subjects, or tasks. The effects of the independent variables are assessed first by analyzing the two series of data points representing the different treatments (relative effects) and then by assessing changes in one or both series, as application of the alternative treatment is introduced sequentially. The sequential application of treatment provides an analysis of control in the same manner as the multiple baseline design; the initial alternating treatments phase provides a contrast condition in much the same manner as a baseline condition. Applications of this design to the assessment of peer training and self-injurious behavior are described.     

Using behavior contracts to improve behavior of children and adolescents in multiple settings

Research has shown that behavior contracts, a form of contingency management, can promote a wide range of behavior changes for individuals in varied populations; however, relatively few studies have been conducted in nonacademic settings. In the context of two service projects, we evaluated the extent to which behavior contracts improved problem behavior for 11 children and adolescents in residential treatment facilities and foster homes using nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants’ designs with three or more tiers and supplemental statistical analysis for each tier. Practitioners in each setting implemented individualized behavior contracts for 5 to 59 weeks. Results show that behavior improved substantially for six participants but was relatively unchanged for the other five participants. We discuss the limitations of this clinically driven study, as well as clinical implications of our mixed findings.     

A preliminary investigation of acceptance and commitment therapy as a treatment for marijuana dependence in adults

In this investigation, 3 adults who met criteria for marijuana dependence were treated using an abbreviated version of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). The treatment was delivered in eight weekly 90-min individual sessions. The effects of the intervention were assessed using a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design. Self-reported marijuana use, confirmed through oral swabs, reached zero levels for all participants at posttreatment. At a 3-month follow-up, 1 participant was still abstinent and the other 2 were using but at a lower average level of consumption compared to baseline. Depression, anxiety, withdrawal symptoms, and general levels of experiential avoidance generally improved. This preliminary test suggests that additional development and testing of ACT for marijuana use are warranted.     

Habit reversal as a treatment for chronic skin picking in typically developing adult male siblings.

In this study, habit reversal was evaluated as a treatment for skin picking in typically developing adult male siblings using a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design. Results showed socially valid decreases in reported picking as a result of treatment.     

TEACHING COIN EQUIVALENCE TO THE MENTALLY RETARDED1

A program was designed to teach coin equivalence to mentally retarded adolescents. Coin equivalence was defined as choosing several different combinations of coins to equal specified target values. A pretest-posttest matched-groups design was employed with an experimental group receiving the monetary training, and a no-training control group. A multiple baseline across coin-counting responses was also incorporated in the experimental group. Training was divided into six stages, each teaching one specific method of combining coins to equal 10 target values from 5¢ through 50¢. A three-component response chain was used, requiring (a) naming, (b) selecting and counting, and (c) depositing target monetary values into a coin machine. Experimental subjects improved significantly in coin equivalence performance and maintained their skill on follow up tests; control subjects did not.     

APPARENT COVARIATION BETWEEN CHILD HABIT DISORDERS: EFFECTS OF SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT FOR THUMB SUCKING ON UNTARGETED CHRONIC HAIR PULLING

We evaluated the effects of aversive taste treatment of thumb sucking on untreated trichotillomania (habitual hair pulling) in two children who chronically pulled their hair and sucked their thumbs. A combination of withdrawal and nonconcurrent multiple baseline designs showed that, concomitant with the successful treatment of thumb sucking, hair pulling was also eliminated. The results suggest an efficient method for changing behaviors that are difficult to treat directly.     

RESPONSE REPETITION AS AN ERROR‐CORRECTION PROCEDURE FOR ACQUISITION OF MATH FACTS AND MATH COMPUTATION

We used nonconcurrent and concurrent multiple baseline designs to evaluate the extent to which error correction with response repetition (RR) produced acquisition of math facts and correct math computation for four individuals diagnosed with intellectual disabilities. The results show that RR increased correct responding on (i) targeted math problems for three of four participants and (ii) math problems presented in alternative formats for two of two participants. The results are consistent with prior studies that used RR to increase correct sight‐word reading for individuals with intellectual disabilities. The findings are discussed in terms of how RR might be implemented in typical classroom settings. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Teaching children with autism to tell socially appropriate lies

This study used a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the use of rules, role‐play, and feedback for teaching 3 children with autism spectrum disorder to tell socially appropriate lies when (a) presented with an undesired gift and (b) someone's appearance changed in an undesired way. The intervention was effective in teaching use of socially appropriate lies, and generalization to untrained people and gifts or appearances was observed.     

The implementation and adoptability of behavioral skills training in a university career center

We evaluated the extent to which staff at a university career center (a) already used, (b) could be taught to use, and (c) might continue to use behavioral skills training (BST) when teaching interview answers to college students. We used a nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across three staff‐student dyads to assess the extent to which staff implemented BST and students provided appropriate answers before and after training. Results showed that interview training at the career center typically consisted of few BST steps, but staff could be taught on how to implement BST. All staff rated BST as an acceptable and effective form of interview training, but only one indicated that he or she was likely to adopt BST at the career center.     

Improving the driving practices of pizza deliverers: Response generalization and moderating effects of driving history

A practical intervention program, targeting the safety belt use of pizza deliverers at two stores, increased significantly the use of both safety belts (143% above baseline) and turn signals (25% above baseline). Control subjects (i.e., pizza deliverers at a third no-intervention store and patrons driving to the pizza stores) showed no changes in belt or turn signal use over the course of 7-month study. The intervention program was staggered across two pizza stores and consisted of a group meeting wherein employees discussed the value of safety belts, received feedback regarding their low safety belt use, offered suggestions for increasing their belt use, and made a personal commitment to buckle up by signing buckle-up promise cards. Subsequently, employee-designed buckle-up reminder signs were placed in the pizza stores. By linking license plate numbers to individual driving records, we examined certain aspects of driving history as moderators of pre- and postintervention belt use. Although baseline belt use was significantly lower for drivers with one or more driving demerits or accidents in the previous 5 years, after the intervention these risk groups increased their belt use significantly and at the same rate as drivers with no demerits or accidents. Whereas baseline belt use was similar for younger (under 25) and older (25 or older) drivers, younger drivers were markedly more influenced by the intervention than were older drivers. Individual variation in belt use during baseline, intervention, and follow-up phases indicated that some drivers require more effective and costly intervention programs to motivate their safe driving practices.     

STACKING THE DECK: TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS TO RETARDED ADULTS WITH A MODIFIED TABLE GAME

This study developed and evaluated a social skills training program for institutionalized mildly or moderately retarded and dually diagnosed individuals. Social skills were conceptualized as requiring an action or reaction within six skill areas: compliments, social interactions, politeness, criticism, social confrontation, and questions/answers. The program taught social skills using a commercially available table game, Sorry, and a specially designed card deck. Each card represented one of the skill areas and was designed to train either an actor or reactor response. The program featured response specific feedback, self-monitoring, individualized reinforcers, and individualized performance criterion levels. A multiple baseline across two groups (N = 3 per group) revealed that the game contingencies increased social skills in all targeted areas. After training, the subjects displayed their newly learned skills at or above their trained levels in two different settings with novel persons present. Although untargeted, the complexity of the subjects' responses increased across conditions, since there was a steady increase in the number of words they used per response. The program appears to be a viable means of training social skills since it uses standardized training procedures, requires only one facilitator, and is in itself a social situation that may encourage interactions with peers, cooperation, competition, and politeness.     

Fathers as Intervention Agents for Their Children with Developmental Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Parent training aimed at aiding children to overcome social and behavioral problems is an area that has continued to gain attention and support. Very little of the current research has been with developmentally disabled children, the focus of this study. Additionally, for most parent training programs, “parents” actually refers to mothers. In this study three fathers and their developmentally disabled children, who ranged in age from 2 years 10 months to 4 years 5 months, were studied. A multiple baseline across fathers' behaviors was utilized for participants to evaluate effects of parent training on fathers' target behaviors. Child compliance and inappropriate behaviors were also addressed. Parent training resulted in desirable changes on a range of target behaviors. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

THE GOOD TOOTHBRUSHING GAME: A SCHOOL-BASED DENTAL HYGIENE PROGRAM FOR INCREASING THE TOOTHBRUSHING EFFECTIVENESS OF CHILDREN

There has been a serious lack of experimentally verified, effective dental hygiene programs in the schools. In and of themselves, the instruction-alone programs which comprise children's dental education do not produce proper toothbrushing skills. In the present study, a school-based contingency dental hygiene program designed to increase the effectiveness of children's toothbrushing skills at home was implemented with grade one and two classes. Each class was divided into teams and participated in the “Good Toothbrushing Game.” Each day four children from each team had the cleanliness of their teeth assessed according to the Simplified Oral Hygiene Index (Greene & Vermillion, 1964). The team with the lowest mean oral hygiene score was declared the daily winner. Winning teams received stickers and had their names posted. A multiple baseline across classrooms single-subject group design (Hersen & Barlow, 1976, pp. 228–229) established that the good toothbrushing game greatly increased the effectiveness of children's oral hygiene skills. The treatment terminal level for the grade one scores was 2.0 as compared to a baseline terminal level of 5.0, and for the grade two's was 2.3 compared to 5.7 at the end of baseline. A 9-mo follow-up indicated that these results were maintained. The data strongly suggest that proper implementation of behavioral principles is essential to the success of oral hygiene programs.     

Operant discrimination training to establish praise as a reinforcer

Social deficits are a hallmark feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Consequently, socially mediated consequences (i.e., praise) may not function as reinforcers for individuals with ASD. Given the frequency in which praise is used as a programmed consequence in empirical research and in clinical practice, it is necessary to explore procedures that could condition praise to function as reinforcers. Operant discrimination training has emerged as a potential procedure to condition stimuli to acquire reinforcing properties. This study aimed to utilize the operant discrimination training procedure to condition a praise statement to function as a reinforcer. Four children diagnosed with ASD participated in the study. A nonconcurrent multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate this emerging pairing procedure. Findings suggest that immediate effects were observed across all participants, but responding did not maintain, suggesting that reinforcing value of the praise statement diminished.     

Facilitating the emergence of convergent intraverbals in children with autism

Convergent intraverbals represent a specific type of intraverbal in which multiple components of one speaker's verbal behavior control a specific verbal response from another speaker (e.g., Speaker 1: What wooly, horned animal lives in the high country? Speaker 2: Bighorn sheep). To foster the development of advanced language, Sundberg and Sundberg (2011) proposed prerequisite skills that may engender the emergence of novel, convergent intraverbals. We used a multiple‐probe design with both nonconcurrent (across participants) and concurrent (across stimulus sets) components to evaluate the effects of training these prerequisite skills on the emergence of convergent intraverbals with four children with autism. Participants showed the emergence of convergent intraverbals at mastery levels after they displayed mastery performance on all of the prerequisite skills identified by Sundberg and Sundberg, lending support to their characterization as prerequisites. We discuss these findings in terms of operant mechanisms that may facilitate the development of generative language.     

TEACHING MENDING SKILLS TO MENTALLY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS

This experiment presents a model for analyzing community living skills and teaching them to mentally retarded adolescents. A task analysis of three mending skills was developed and validated, aided by consultation with persons having expertise in home economics and mental retardation. The task analysis was modified to compensate for the constraints imposed by the trainees' disabilities. Five moderately retarded youths received training on sewing hems, buttons, and seams. Sewing skills were acquired rapidly and maintained. The behavior generalized from trained to untrained tasks on their common components for all subjects. A multiple baseline across participants combined with a multiple baseline across responses demonstrated the combined effectiveness of an objectively validated, detailed task analysis; graduated sequence of prompts; and response consequences in training and maintaining community living skills with mentally retarded adolescents.     

Using Technology to Deliver Immediate Corrective Feedback to Preservice Teachers

Teacher preparation programs are under scrutiny for their role in the troubled American educational system. If American education is to improve, teacher educators must identify and encourage teachers to use effective teaching practices. A promising technique for increasing use of teaching practices is providing feedback to teachers on newly acquired behaviors. The focus of this study was to examine the effects of immediate corrective feedback on one specific teaching behavior, use of three-term contingencies, to preservice teachers. A multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the effects of immediate corrective feedback, delivered via a wireless FM listening system. Immediate corrective feedback (as compared with delayed feedback) was shown to be an effective way to increase preservice teacher completion of three-term contingency trials by all participants. These findings and other considerations for additional research using feedback are addressed.