内源性眼跳与注意转移关系研究述评

视觉选择过程中既存在外显的眼跳行为,也包含内隐的注意转移,两者对于视觉目标的加工都有促进作用。近二十年来出现大量关于二者关系的研究,多数研究者发现眼跳和注意转移存在密切联系。内源性眼跳是个体根据目标或意愿主动发起的眼跳,对人类生存具有重大意义。本文系统回顾了视觉加工领域中对于内源性眼跳与空间注意转移关系问题的探讨及其研究成果,分别从行为研究和神经心理学研究两个方面阐述了该领域的研究进展并作出简要评价及展望。     

阅读中的眼动控制理论与SWIFT模型

随着眼动研究的深入,近年来研究者受注意梯度指导理论影响,结合心理学的最新发展以及在相关实验研究的基础上提出了新的理论模型,其中最具代表性的是SWIFT模型。SWIFT模型遵循3条基本原则：（1）一定注意范围内的分布式词汇加工;（2）眼跳计划和目标选择的分离;（3）伴随中央凹目标抑制的眼跳机制。在构架上,该模型主要有两大功能模块：词汇加工和眼跳编程     

自我面孔加工与注意——来自反眼跳的证据

作为一种具有重要生物学意义和社会性的视觉刺激,面孔比一般的视觉刺激更容易吸引注意.本研究以Eyelink 2000车载眼动仪为工具,在混合呈现的反眼跳任务中考察了32名大学生被试对自我面孔、恋人面孔和陌生面孔加工中的注意捕获和维持注意方面的特点.结果发现:在朝向眼跳任务中,自我面孔和恋人面孔的眼跳错误率显著低于异性陌生面孔,并且自我面孔和恋人面孔都表现出了保持注意的优势;而在反眼跳任务中,自我面孔、恋人面孔与陌生人面孔的反眼跳错误率和眼跳潜伏期没有显著差异.这一结果表明:自我面孔、恋人面孔与陌生面孔之间在高水平视觉特征上的差异没有达到影响反眼跳的最小可觉察差别量.因此,在反眼跳任务中面孔的优势效应掩盖了自我相关信息加工的优势,导致了自我面孔与陌生面孔没有表现出对注意捕获或保持注意上的差异.     

内源性眼跳前的空间注意转移

采用线运动错觉(illusory line motion)测量的单任务范式,以色块为眼跳提示刺激,用三个实验对内源性眼跳前是否存在空间注意转移进行了探讨。实验一要求被试将眼睛跳往提示刺激处,通过对线运动错觉的分析确定该条件下的空间注意转移规律;实验二要求被试在将视线保持在注视点处的条件下判断目标色块是否出现,以探明线运动错觉是否受对目标色块前注意阶段加工的影响;实验三要求被试将眼睛跳往提示刺激的对侧,分析眼跳位置与提示刺激空间方位的一致性对空间注意转移的影响。获得以下主要结果：(1)内源性眼跳前存在注意转移;(2)在视线保持在注视点处的条件下,注意未受对提示刺激前注意加工的引导;(3)眼跳目标位置与提示目标位置的空间一致性对眼跳前空间注意转移无显著影响。     

视觉搜索过程中的眼跳及其机制

该文对视觉搜索过程中的眼跳及其时间进程、神经机制及相关的理论与模型等方面研究进行了回顾。发现内外源性眼跳得到了研究者的普遍关注,对眼运动记忆、返回抑制及眼跳时间进程的研究尚存在分歧。关于眼跳的神经机制,额叶眼动区与上丘分别被认为是眼跳的关键区与指令发出者。尽管不同的眼跳理论与模型对眼跳现象给出了各自的解释,但都不尽完善,尚需对这些理论进行整合或者提出新的解释模型。文章还对未来的研究进行了展望     

阅读过程的眼动理论综述

该文介绍了解释阅读过程的主要眼动理论,并对早期的视觉缓冲器加工理论、直接假说和眼-脑假说、聚光灯理论、Morrison的眼动理论模型等眼动理论和新近的战略战术模型和E-Z模型等眼动理论进行了评述。最后,对眼动理论的发展方向进行了展望。     

系列眼跳的产生及其心理学意义

面对呈现面前的视觉场景,我们总会进行一系列的眼跳。近些年来,很多研究对系列眼跳这一现象做了较为深入的探讨,但仍在很多问题上存在着争论。该文从系列眼跳产生的神经生理基础、系列眼跳对视觉信息更新的影响、注意在系列眼跳中所起的作用以及记忆与系列眼跳的关系等几个方面来对系列眼跳的研究进展及其心理学意义加以介绍与评价     

情绪场景图片的注意偏向：眼动研究

注意实验中,与不带情绪色彩的刺激相比,具有情绪意义的刺激可引起注意偏向。本研究以情绪场景图片为材料,通过眼动技术分别记录被试在反向眼跳任务和Go/No-go任务中的眼动数据,考察了情绪图片的注意偏向。结果发现：反向眼跳任务中,对情绪图片的眼跳潜伏期比中性图片更长,眼跳错误率也更高;在Go任务中,相对于呈现在中央的中性图片,情绪图片引起的对靶子的眼跳潜伏期更长;在No-go任务中,相对于呈现在中央的中性图片,情绪图片引起的眼跳错误率更低。实验结果说明,情绪图片可引起注意偏向,表现为更快的捕获注意并且注意更难从情绪图片上转移。     

视觉注意捕获的快速脱离假说与信号抑制假说

快速脱离假说和信号抑制假说都是将传统的自下而上捕获和自上而下控制结合起来的混合模式假说。快速脱离假说认为突显干扰物总能在第一时间自下而上地捕获注意, 当突显干扰物与任务要求不符时, 注意会迅速脱离该位置。信号抑制假说认为突显干扰物都会产生“注意我”的信号, 当突显干扰物与任务要求不符时, 该信号会被自上而下地抑制以阻止注意捕获发生。前者相关的研究多采用空间线索提示范式和眼动脱离范式, 实验中被试采取独子探测策略, 而后者相关的研究多采用额外单例范式的变式, 实验中被试采取特征探测策略。未来研究应采用不同的刺激类型和实验方法进一步为两个假说提供证据支持, 同时要关注奖赏、训练等因素对“捕获-脱离”和“信号-抑制”的影响。     

外源性视觉选择性注意的时空特征

使用与目标出现位置无关的外周空现刺激作为线索,研究在不同刺激呈现间隔（ＳＯＡ）下它对不同偏心 视觉目标的辨别反应时的影响,以考察外源性觉选择性注意的加工特生,并下三种注意空间分布模型对选择性注意时空特征的不同预测,结果表明：１．外周突现刺激能够不随意地吸引注意,符合自动加工特性;２．注意转移以注意中心连续移动的方式进行,支持探照灯模型,不支持透镜模型和静态的空间梯度模型,并在注意移动速率进行了估计     

奖赏性线索启动和调控视觉搜索额顶网络的神经机制

近期关于奖赏性信息与视觉搜索任务的交互作用研究体现在两个层面, 其一是施加外部奖赏能够影响被试的视觉搜索反应时和正确率, 其二是搜索目标本身具有奖赏特性也能够影响行为反应。但是, 奖赏性信息对负责视觉搜索的额顶注意网络的动态启动和调控作用仍不清楚。本研究结合Posner空间预提示范式和视觉搜索范式, 采用快速事件相关功能磁共振成像技术, 分别操纵线索提示阶段的线索奖赏属性(奖赏性vs.非奖赏性)和线索空间注意属性(有效提示目标位置vs.无效提示目标位置), 并操纵目标搜索阶段的目标属性(奖赏性vs.非奖赏性), 探讨以下两个核心问题：(1)在线索提示阶段, 奖赏性线索产生的自上而下注意准备信号的神经基础, 以及该神经基础与传统的空间注意准备信号的异同; (2)在目标搜索阶段, 奖赏性线索对负责视觉搜索的额顶注意网络产生的启动和调控作用, 重点考察对正确的奖赏性信息的定向过程和对错误的奖赏性信息的重新定向过程。     

The role of spatial attention and other processes on the magnitude and time course of cueing effects

We are quite often exposed to multiple objects present in the visual scene, thus attentional selection is necessary in order to selectively respond to the relevant information. Objects can be selected on the basis of the location they occupy by orienting attention in space. In this paper, we review the evidence showing that attention can be oriented in space either endogenously, on the basis of central cues, predictive of the relevant location, or exogenously, automatically triggered by the salient properties of visual stimuli (peripheral cues). Several dissociations observed between orienting on the basis of the two types of cues have led to the conclusion that they do not represent just two modes of triggering the orienting of the very same attentional mechanism, but rather they modulate processing differently. We present a theoretical framework according to which endogenous predictive cues facilitate target processing by orienting attention, thus amplifying processing at the attended location. In contrast, apart from attentional orienting, peripherally presented discrepant cues might trigger additional cue-target event-integration and event-segregation processes, which modulate processing in a different way, thus leading to cueing effects that are exclusively triggered by peripheral cues.     

Retrospective perceptual distortion of position representation does not lead to delayed localization

Previous studies have reported retrospective influences of visual events that occur after target events. In the attentional attraction effect, a position cue presented after a target stimulus distorts the target’s position towards that of the cue. The present study explored the temporal relationship between stimulus presentation and reaction time (RT) in this effect in two experiments. Participants performed a speeded localization task on two vertical lines, the positions of which were to be distorted by an additional attentional cue. No significant difference in RTs was found between the conditions with simultaneous and delayed cues. RTRT was modulated by the perceived (rather than physical) alignment of the lines. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the strength of attentional capture by modulating the color relevance of the cue to the target. Trials with cues producing stronger attentional capture (with cues of a different color from the targets) were found to induce apparently stronger distortion effects. This result favors the notion that the observed repulsion and attraction effects are driven by attentional mechanisms. Overall, the results imply that the attentional shift induced by the cue might occur rapidly and complete before the establishment of conscious location representation of the cue and the target without affecting overall response time.     

Psychoticism and attentional flexibility

In three separate experiments, we tested the hypothesis that a systematic relationship between psychoticism (P) and visual selective attention is infrequently observed because the tasks typically used to test individual differences in efficiency of attentional mechanisms do not entail attentional flexibility. We manipulated the selection rule of the computerized divided visual attention (DIVA) task to be either (a) a predictable, or (b) a random manner, and a secondary task was added to check the quality of high P scorers’ performance in an interference condition; and we also introduced breaks between DIVA tasks to allow for cue utilization. Results revealed that low P scorers outperformed high P scorers in the regular selection rule alternation condition (cue utilization possible), whereas high P scorers performed better in random alternation condition – high P scorers also showed performance superiority in the dual task condition unless stimuli presentation was speeded up. Thus, P does not necessarily impair attentional performance; indeed, our data point to performance advantages of high P, especially attentional efficiency in tasks requiring small demands of attentional control.     

The gap between inattentional blindness and attentional misdirection

Kuhn and colleagues described a novel attentional misdirection approach (deliberate diversion of attention away from a visually salient stimulus) to investigate overt and covert attention mechanisms in connection with inattentional blindness (not being able to perceive something that is plainly visible because one’s attention has not been focused on it). This misdirection paradigm is valuable to study the temporal relationship between eye movements and visual awareness. Although, as put forth in this comment, the link between attentional misdirection and inattentional blindness needs to be developed further. There are at least four differences between the two paradigms which concern the conceptual aspects of the unexpected object and the methodological aspects of the task design. This highlights the need for a broader theoretical framework incorporating inattentional blindness and overt and covert attention mechanisms. Two possible research lines focusing on the orienting attention research and the “selection-for-action” paradigm are discussed.     

Effect of negative emotion on visual attention: Automatic capture by fear‐related stimuli1

Abstract: In this study, we examined the effect of threatening pictures (e.g., snakes and spiders) on control of spatial attention using a probe detection task. In addition to attentional capture by the threatening stimuli (Unpredictable task), the effects of affective valence of the pictures on the voluntary control of attention were explored (Predictable task). Results showed that reaction time (RT) was facilitated to the probe that appeared at the location of threatening stimuli when it occurred in the right visual field (but not in the left visual field), indicating that attention was captured automatically, at least in this visual field. However, when participants were able to predict the probe location, the attentional gains increased similarly for all the conditions (composed of visual field by picture type combinations) relative to those of Unpredictable task, with no indication of deferred deployment of attention to threatening stimuli. The results of this study suggested that the emotional valence, particularly negative valence, affected the automatic control of attention. This effect differed between the two visual fields in which emotional stimuli occurred.     

正常老化对视觉早期注意的影响——来自ERP的证据

选择性注意能够作用于视觉信息加工的不同阶段。各个注意阶段均受到老化过程的影响, 其中注意早期阶段的老化研究对于理解认知老化的发生机制有重要意义。本文系统地梳理了刺激前的注意预期阶段以及刺激后200 ms内的早期感知注意阶段的正常老年人和青年人ERP比较研究, 以探讨正常老化对视觉早期注意的影响。现有证据表明, 相对于青年人, 正常老年人：(1)多个早期ERP注意效应(包括注意预期ADAN, 早期空间注意N1, 以及特征注意SP和SN)在潜伏期上都存在显著延迟; (2)在振幅上, 不同ERP注意效应的老化表现存在差异：某些ERP成分(包括注意预期EDAN, 以及早期空间注意P1)的注意效应没有明显减弱, 而某些ERP成分(包括注意预期alpha, 早期空间注意N1, 以及特征注意SN)的注意效应受到老化调控; (3)一些注意效应(包括特征注意SP成分, 以及客体注意P1和N1成分)的目标增强机制保留, 而干扰抑制机制缺损。目前已有研究在老化对注意效应振幅的调控上还存在不一致, 这可能与研究的信噪比、任务难度、注意机制分离以及老年人的个体差异有关。未来研究应考虑这些因素以更好地探究正常老化对视觉早期注意的影响。     

注意过程中的行为振荡现象

行为振荡是个体心理加工过程的周期性动态变化在行为上的表现。通过高时间分辨率的行为采样方法, 行为振荡研究为探索视觉注意的时间动态结构提供了一个新的视角。各种不同的注意任务中都发现存在行为振荡现象。大量行为振荡证据表明, 注意过程存在两种主要的节律成分：反映注意抑制的α节律(8~13 Hz)和反映注意转移的θ节律(4~8 Hz)。这些结果有助于揭示注意的时间动态结构, 也为序列搜索理论和平行搜索理论之间的争论提供了新的分析思路。行为振荡的节律特征会受到一些潜在因素(如任务难度、线索有效性)的影响。行为振荡和神经振荡在某些任务中表现出相同的节律成分, 提示两者涉及了相似的心理过程。后续研究应进一步关注各种不同的注意控制过程以及多模态交互任务, 深入探索其行为振荡特点, 以更好地揭示注意的动态加工过程。     

Positive mood broadens visual attention to positive stimuli

In an attempt to investigate the impact of positive emotions on visual attention within the context of Fredrickson’s (1998) broaden-and-build model, eye tracking was used in two studies to measure visual attentional preferences of college students (n=58, n=26) to emotional pictures. Half of each sample experienced induced positive mood immediately before viewing slides of three similarly-valenced images, in varying central-peripheral arrays. Attentional breadth was determined by measuring the percentage viewing time to peripheral images as well as by the number of visual saccades participants made per slide. Consistent with Fredrickson’s theory, the first study showed that individuals induced into positive mood fixated more on peripheral stimuli than did control participants; however, this only held true for highly-valenced positive stimuli. Participants under induced positive mood also made more frequent saccades for slides of neutral and positive valence. A second study showed that these effects were not simply due to differences in emotional arousal between stimuli. Selective attentional broadening to positive stimuli may act both to facilitate later building of resources as well as to maintain current positive affective states.     

Salience-based progression of visual attention: Time course

In a visual search task, visual attention progresses from the most to the least salient item until a target is found. The time course of such salience-based progression remains unclear although the temporal deployment seems as crucial as the spatial deployment. The present study investigated how the general hierarchical pattern takes place. Healthy volunteers were presented with a primed visual search paradigm in which the primes consisted of three items differing in salience for either 33, 50 or 100 ms. Subsequently one of them became the target and participants had to make a judgment about it. In order to progress on the basis of salience, attention seemed first to be captured by the most salient item. Secondly, the first two most salient items seemed both encompassed within the attentional spotlight. At that time, the least salient item seemed inhibited, completing the stepwise progression of attention. In summary, our data suggest that the hierarchical pattern is built up over time through orienting and expansion of the spotlight, and inhibition of the least salient signals. Furthermore, complementary analyses revealed a proximity effect influencing the selection of the next location to visit. As predicted by different computational models, items located closely to the first visited location were more prone to attract attention than distant items but interestingly enough, this effect only applied to the least salient item suggesting a balance between salience and proximity criteria. Critically also, salience and proximity effects seem to have different time courses. Results are only partially explained by current visual attention models and require further investigation.