Learning potential and anxious tendency: Test anxiety as a bias factor in educational testing

Abstract

Contrary to conventional educational testing, in so-called dynamic assessment subjects are allowed to consult help during testing or are offered prior training. The differential results of both testing procedures are sometimes ascribed to the idea that dynamic tests reflect the breadth of the zone of proximal development on top of independent achievement. Alternative explanations claim that conventional tests are more strongly biased towards various characteristics of persons, which have a negative influence on performance, when compared to dynamic tests. In this study, it was hypothesised that static as well as dynamic assessment is biased towards anxious tendencies of subjects, but the former more strongly than the latter. In order to investigate this supposition, the performance of subjects on dynamic and static tests was systematically compared and related to measures of test anxiety in a longitudinal experiment. In the experiment, repeated measures of independent mathematics achievement as well as mathematics learning potential were gathered among students of secondary education in the Netherlands. Prior to every mathematics test, subjects filled out a test anxiety questionnaire. After every mathematics test, subjects filled out a general state anxiety questionnaire. The participating subjects were students from secondary education, either preparing for higher vocational training or university, aged approximately 15 years on average.

The results of the experiment showed that lack of self-confidence is an important constituent factor of test anxiety, apart from worry and emotionality. The data supported the assumption that such testing procedures are less biased towards anxiety than conventional tests, but it was not established that dynamic testing procedures render results that are not biased by test anxious tendencies.     

On Modality Effects in Bilingual Emotional Language Processing: Evidence from Galvanic Skin Response

Though previous research has shown a decreased sensitivity to emotionally-laden linguistic stimuli presented in the non-native (L2) compared to the native language (L1), studies conducted thus far have not examined how different modalities influence bilingual emotional language processing. The present experiment was therefore aimed at investigating how late proficient Polish (L1)–English (L2) bilinguals process emotionally-laden narratives presented in L1 and L2, in the visual and auditory modality. To this aim, we employed the galvanic skin response (GSR) method and a self-report measure (Polish adaptation of the PANAS questionnaire). The GSR findings showed a reduced galvanic skin response to L2 relative to L1, thus suggesting a decreased reactivity to emotional stimuli in L2. Additionally, we observed a more pronounced skin conductance level to visual than auditory stimuli, yet only in L1, which might be accounted for by a self-reference effect that may have been modulated by both language and modality.     

Cognitive dissonance and the placebo response: The effect of differential justification for undergoing dummy injections

Studied the effects of cognitive dissonance on pain perception and attitudes towards injections in 48 student subjects of both sexes (average age = 20.5). In a ‘forced compliance’ design, subjects received sets of painful radiant heat stimuli, projected to their inside forearms, which they rated for painfulness and to which their GSR amplitude was recorded. During these stimuli, they ‘chose’ to receive an experimental (placebo) injection. The degree of justification for agreeing to be injected was varied. Subjects in the high-justification (HJ) condition were paid for their compliance, while subjects in the low-justification (LJ) condition were not paid. Two predictions were made from dissonance theory. The first prediction, that only LJ subjects would manifest significant post-injection analgesia when compared to subjects in a no-choice control condition, was confirmed, considering both pain ratings (p < 0.01) and GSR (p < 0.025). The second prediction, that only LJ subjects would rate injections more favourably than control subjects on a post-experimental measure, was not confirmed. The relevance of these findings to explanation of the placebo effect is discussed.     

Physiological anxiety responses in transcendental meditators and nonmeditators

In Exp. I, the spontaneous GSR of seven Transcendental Meditators and seven nonmeditators was measured in a sequence of five conditions: stress (shock avoidance)--rest--meditation (meditators) or rest/eyes closed (nonmeditators)--stress (shock avoidance)--rest. In Exp. II, the spontaneous GSR of a similar group of subjects was measured in a sequence of three conditions: rest--meditation or rest/eyes closed--rest. Analysis of variance did not yield significant differences between meditators and nonmeditators although analysis did verify that the shock-avoidance task effectively produced anxiety. It was concluded that Transcendental Meditation is not an effective means of reducing autonomic responses to stress under the present testing conditions.     

Discrimination without awareness?

The fate of the unattended message in dichotic listening experiments is a much disputed issue. Moray (1969) proposes that there is no processing of the unattended message, whereas Norman (1969) has suggested that it is analyzed to the level of meaning. In order to test these alternative hypotheses an experiment was performed in which galvanic skin responses (GSR) were conditioned to a word (CS) by pairing it with shock. The word was then included in passages of prose presented to subjects as the attended and unattended messages in a dichotic listening task. GSR's were obtained to the occurrence of CS in the unattended message and also to words acoustically similar to CS and to synonyms of CS. The probability of obtaining a GSR to the occurrence of an accoustically similar word was increased by placing that word in a context appropriate to CS. These results suggest that the unattended message can be processed to a level at which semantic information is extracted without the subject's reported awareness.     

The separate and combined effects of GSR biofeedback and delayed auditory feedback on stuttering: A preliminary study

The separate and combined effects of galvanic skin response biofeedback low wave amplitude self regulation (GSR LW) and amplified delayed auditory feedback (DAF) upon stuttering dysfluency are examined. Two college age male stutterers who were seen on an intensive longitudinal basis were the subjects in this study.Results suggest that GSR LW, when it is accomplished, functions to moderately but significantly reduce stuttering dysfluency compared to no GSR biofeedback. This effect does not noticeably dissipate over time. There occurred a marked and sustained reduction in stuttering dysfluency under DAF compared to no DAF conditions. Without separating accomplished and not accomplished GSR LW, there occurred slightly but not statistically significantly fewer blocks under the combined DAF-GSR LW condition than under DAF alone. Nevertheless, it does seem likely, considering these findings overall, that when GSR LW is accomplished, the fluency facilitating effect of its simultaneous combination with DAF is additive i.e., greater than either alone. Possible theoretical and therapeutic implications are discussed.     

Effects of real vs pretend shock on semantic differential judgments and the GSR in some classical conditioning paradigms

In two experiments subjects were shown different color 1-sec lights, one just before the end of a 4-sec UCS and the other coming 10 sec after UCS termination and 25 sec before the next UCS. For some groups the UCS was strong electric shock; for others it was a tone which subjects were instructed to imagine was a strong shock. The primary data were changes in semantic differential ratings of the lights before and after 12 “conditioning” trials. There were no differences among the groups. In a third experiment a 6-sec delay CS was used for GSR conditioning, some subjects receiving actual shock and others pretend shock. Only the former showed conditioning. The results are discussed in terms of a model of experimental demand.     

On-line analysis of the GSR

This study reports the use of the λ, a measure of sequential dependency developed by Lathrop (1964) in connection with electrodermal activity. Thirteen female subjects, ranging in age from 19 to 53, participated in a simple repeat-stimulus habituation experiment: GSR data in percent-change and λ were compared. A high, positive correlation was obtained. Consequently, the use of λ is advocated because it shows both initial value and sequential dependency and meets the criteria for analysis based on the probability of statistics such ast andF.     

大学生物质主义与儒家传统价值观的冲突研究

以价值观冲突理论为依据,探讨中国社会转型时期物质主义与儒家传统价值观的并存给当代大学生带来的心理冲突。采用测谎仪记录被试回答价值观选择两难情境问题时的皮电值,结果发现：对于高儒家传统价值观的大学生而言,物质主义水平的上升会引起其皮电值的显著增加,而对于低儒家传统价值观的大学生则没有这种效应。表明同时拥有高水平的物质主义和儒家传统价值观的大学生会体验到大量的心理冲突。     

Cognitive Manipulation of GSR Extinction: Analogues for Conditioning Therapies

Cognitive determinants of GSR activity during extinction trials were examined following conditioning. Conditioned GSRs extinguished rapidly when subjects were informed the UCS would not again be administered, compared to subjects not given this information. Of greater interest was the finding that (false) high feedback concerning subjects' responsivity to the Cs+ during extinction served to maintain GSR activity at a higher level than subjects receiving (false) low feedback. The relationship was observed within both information conditions. Implications are drawn for both aversive conditioning therapy and systematic desensitization.     

Cognitive manipulation of GSR extinction: Analogues for conditioning therapies

Cognitive determinants of GSR activity during extinction trials were examined following conditioning. Conditioned GSRs extinguished rapidly when subjects were informed the UCS would not again be administered, compared to subjects not given this information. Of greater interest was the finding that (false) high feedback concerning subjects’ responsivity to the Cs+ during extinction served to maintain GSR activity at a higher level than subjects receiving (false) low feedback. The relationship was observed within both information conditions. Implications are drawn for both aversive conditioning therapy and systematic desensitization.     

Variation within categories

Two aspects of variation within categories, relating to different models of categorization, were investigated — frequency of dimensional values and typicality differences within values. The influence of range of typicality experienced during learning and of informational value of feedback was also studied. Finally, differential forgetting of values was examined.In the experiment subjects learned to categorize faces, and then performed a classification test task and pairwise comparisons of faces. A variety of dependent variables was employed, including the galvanic skin response (GSR).Typicality and frequency of values appeared to influence categorization performance independent of each other. It was concluded that both prototype distance models and frequency models explain different aspects of variation within the same categories, and that models of classification should account for frequency of values in contrasting categories. Results showed furthermore (1) the influence of typicality range on the extension of a category; (2) no influence of specific feedback regarding representativeness of a face; (3) less decay with more important values; and (4) a positive relationship between uncertainty reduction and GSR.     

心理健康素质测评系统·中国成年人情绪性量表的编制

探讨情绪性在人格特质层面的内涵及结构,并编制适合中国成年人使用的情绪性量表。采用开放性问卷调查,专家讨论及参考国内外同类量表的方式形成条目池,分别选取203名和522名大学生对量表进行预试和正式施测,检验量表的心理测量学指标。研究发现（1）情绪性量表由3个维度组成,分别是愉悦性、镇定性和表达性,量表具有较好的结构效度和信度;（2）验证性因素分析结果表明模型拟合较好,量表结构合理;（3）情绪性量表与抑郁自评量表、状态-特质焦虑问卷以及情绪表达量表有较好的同时效度。情绪性量表的信度和效度均令人满意,可以用来评     

A comparison of the effects of vicariously instigated classical conditioning and direct classical conditioning procedures

Two groups of Ss received either two or 16 paired classical conditioning trials beyond the peak CR. A third group received the same stimuli as in the 16 postpeak condition but in an unpaired and random order. The stimuli in all three groups were delivered directly to S. Subsequently, all three groups, including a fourth which was not given any prior direct classical conditioning, were exposed to vicariously instigated classical conditioning. This consisted of havingS observe someone (model) employed byE who received the same CS as was delivered during direct conditioning. The CS was paired with the feigned arm movement of the model, simulating a reaction to shock. This vicarious classical conditioning procedure when compared to direct classical conditioning resulted in smaller GSR magnitudes for both the CRs and UCRs. Previous experience with direct classical conditioning seems to have had an attenuating effect on GSR magnitude during the vicarious situation. A postexperimental questionnaire tended to support the results, and the relationship between the present study and current classical conditioning theory is discussed.     

Effects of phase-of-respiration on GSR detection

Previous studies of visual and auditory signal detection (Flexman & Demaree, 1972; Flexman, 1974; Flexman, Demaree & Simpson, 1974) have found that signals occurring during exhalation are detected with greater sensitivity than are signals occuring during inhalation. The purpose of the present study was to make use of a use of a signal detection paradigm (Green & Swets, 1966) in extending these phase-of-respiration findings to internal event detection, specifically, to the detection of spontaneous galvanic skin responses (GSRs). A secondary purpose of the study was to re-examine Stern's (1972) finding that high magnitude GSRs were better detected than were low magnitude GSRs. It was found that the phase of respiration during which the GRS reached its peak significantly influenced GSR detection, but that unlike studies of external signal detection, detection was greater for GSRs peaking during the inhalation than for GSRs peaking during exhalation. Some possible artifactual sources of this finding are discussed. No significant effect of GSR magnitude on GSR detection was observed although differences were in the expected direction.     

大学生皮肤电反应、MMPI及其关系的初步研究

应用日产Ｓａｎ－ｅｉｌＡ９７Ａ型脑电图机及ＭＭＰＩ（中国版本）对２６名大学生进行了皮肤电反应记录及人格特征的测查。结果表明：（１）普通大学生中皮电基础水平个体差异十分明显。（２）皮电平均每分钟自发波动次数与ＭＭＰＩ中的Ｄ、Ｓｉ、Ｍａｓ、Ｃｎ呈显著正相关,与Ｌ、Ｋ呈显著负相关。皮电平均每分钟自发波动幅度与Ｆ、Ｄ、Ｍａｓ呈显著正相关;与Ｌ呈显著负相关。（３）皮电基础水平高组与低组在Ｌ、Ｓｉ、Ｍａｓ之Ｔ分上的差异达显著水平。（４）习惯化倾向差组与优组在Ｋ、Ｓｔ、ＭａｓＴ分的差异有显著意义,差组与中组在Ｓｉ、ＣｎＴ分上有显著性差异。（５）习惯化倾向差组皮电基础水平较高;优组皮电基础水平较低,两组差异达显著水平。     

Rethinking the Role of Worry in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Evidence Supporting a Model of Emotional Contrast Avoidance

The Contrast Avoidance model (Newman & Llera, 2011) proposes that individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) are hypersensitive to sharp upward shifts in negative emotion that typically accompany negative events, and use worry to maintain sustained intrapersonal negativity in an attempt to avoid these shifts. Although research shows that worry increases negative emotionality and mutes further emotional reactivity to a stressor when compared to the worry period (e.g., Llera & Newman, 2010), no study has tracked changes in negative emotionality from baseline to worry inductions followed by a range of emotional exposures. Further, no study has yet assessed participants’ subjective appraisals of prior worry on helping to cope with such exposures. The present study tested the main tenets of the Contrast Avoidance model by randomly assigning participants with GAD (n = 48) and nonanxious controls (n = 47) to experience worry, relaxation, and neutral inductions prior to sequential exposure to fearful, sad, and humorous film clips. Both physiological (nonspecific skin conductance responses [NS-SCRs]) and self-reported emotional changes were observed. Results indicated that worry boosted negative emotionality from baseline, which was sustained across negative exposures, whereas low negative emotionality during relaxation and neutral inductions allowed for sharp increases in response to exposures. Furthermore, GAD participants found worry to be more helpful than other conditions in coping with exposures, whereas control participants reported the opposite pattern. Results provide preliminary support for the Contrast Avoidance model. This suggests that treatment should focus on underlying avoidance patterns before attempting to reduce worry behavior.     

The GM1 ganglioside hastens the reduction of hyperemotionality after septal lesions

The purpose of the present study was to assess the effects of ganglioside treatment on changes in emotional, activity, and avoidance behaviors following septal brain damage. Rats were treated with GM1-gangliosides either before and after septal lesions, or only after septal lesions and tested for emotionality on 10 consecutive days beginning on the second day after surgery. The ganglioside treatment decreased the emotionality of rats with septal damage on the first test day, and enhanced their rate of recovery to control levels of emotionality. Septal rats treated with gangliosides had activity, rearing, and avoidance behaviors equivalent to nontreated septal rats; however, lesioned rats treated with GM1 showed reduced intertrial crossings during avoidance conditioning. These results suggest that the changes in emotional behavior of septal rats treated with GM1 occur shortly after the lesion.