汶川地震8.5年后青少年身心状况研究

汶川地震8.5年后,对地震极重灾区的2291名青少年进行问卷调查,考察其创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)、抑郁、创伤后成长(PTG)和生活满意度等身心反应的现状及其共存形态。结果发现:(1)地震发生8.5年后4.75%的青少年有明显的PTSD症状,29.98%的青少年有明显的抑郁症状,其中女生、少数民族学生、高年级学生的症状水平更高;46.13%的青少年报告其出现了明显的PTG,其中女生和少数民族学生的PTG水平更高;青少年的生活满意度较低,其中初一年级显著高于其他年级,但性别和民族差异不显著;(2)青少年的PTSD与抑郁呈显著正相关、与生活满意度呈显著负相关、与PTG相关不显著,抑郁与PTG和生活满意度呈显著负相关,PTG与生活满意度呈显著正相关;(3)青少年的PTSD、抑郁、PTG和生活满意度之间具有共存的形态,具体表现为成长组(32.6%)、低症状组(39.4%)、症状-成长共存组(5.8%)、中等症状共病组(17.8%)和高度症状共病组(4.4%)等5种类别。     

Impact of average household income and damage exposure on post‐earthquake distress and functioning: A community study following the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake

Post‐traumatic stress, depression and anxiety symptoms are common outcomes following earthquakes, and may persist for months and years. This study systematically examined the impact of neighbourhood damage exposure and average household income on psychological distress and functioning in 600 residents of Christchurch, New Zealand, 4–6 months after the fatal February, 2011 earthquake. Participants were from highly affected and relatively unaffected suburbs in low, medium and high average household income areas. The assessment battery included the Acute Stress Disorder Scale, the depression module of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ‐9), and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD‐7), along with single item measures of substance use, earthquake damage and impact, and disruptions in daily life and relationship functioning. Controlling for age, gender and social isolation, participants from low income areas were more likely to meet diagnostic cut‐offs for depression and anxiety, and have more severe anxiety symptoms. Higher probabilities of acute stress, depression and anxiety diagnoses were evident in affected versus unaffected areas, and those in affected areas had more severe acute stress, depression and anxiety symptoms. An interaction between income and earthquake effect was found for depression, with those from the low and medium income affected suburbs more depressed. Those from low income areas were more likely, post‐earthquake, to start psychiatric medication and increase smoking. There was a uniform increase in alcohol use across participants. Those from the low income affected suburb had greater general and relationship disruption post‐quake. Average household income and damage exposure made unique contributions to earthquake‐related distress and dysfunction.     

Stress and coping: The Loma Prieta Earthquake

This study examined the stress response, coping strategies, and behavioral intentions of 185 subjects following the Loma Prieta Earthquake. Subjects completed a series of open ended questions about previous experience with earthquakes and their preparedness for previous and future earthquakes. The Impact of Event Scale (IES) and the Symptom Checklist, Version 90R (SCL-90R), were used to measure participants’ subjective stress response and symptoms of psychological distress at two days and either one week or three weeks following the earthquake. At one or three weeks, some subjects also completed the Coping Strategies Inventory. This study describes the stress response in this earthquake population and explores the relationship of the passage of time and past experiences with earthquakes to psychological distress following the earthquake. Coping strategies and behavioral intentions were also assessed. Results indicated that, although stress levels were elevated at the time of the initial testing, there were declines in reported stress as early as the one week follow-up session. Additionally, a number of gender differences were found in terms of the stress response to the earthquake.     

Cortisol and symptoms of psychopathology in Russian and American college students

Cortisol is a key player in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response to stress, and has been related to symptoms of depression and other stress-related pathology. The present study investigated the relationship between cortisol and survey measures of stress and psychopathology as well as lifestyle in Russian and American college students. Salivary cortisol was collected upon awakening, 30 min later, at 4 p.m., and at 10 p.m. by Russian and American college students. Survey measures of anxiety and depression, as measured by the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-25) were collected as well as scores on the Trauma History Questionnaire (THQ). In addition, measures of drinking-related problems, as measured by the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) and the "Cut down, Annoyed, Guilty, Eye-opener" (CAGE) were also completed. Consistent with the typically observed empirical pattern, cortisol levels increased in the 30 min after awakening and then declined across the day. Women reported more symptoms of anxiety than did men in both Russian and American samples. American students reported more symptoms of depression than did Russian students, though Russian students reported more traumatic life experiences. Americans had higher cortisol levels overall, though Russian students had larger changes in cortisol levels across the day, associated with both greater morning rises and afternoon declines in cortisol. While more Russian students reported smoking, American students reported more problems associated with alcohol use as measured by the AUDIT. The relationship between stress and health, mediating factors of lifestyle and coping, and the impact of social transition in Russia are discussed.     

The Psychological Impact From Hurricane Katrina: Effects of Displacement and Trauma Exposure on University Students

The following study examined the reactions of university students to Hurricane Katrina. A group of 68 New Orleans area students who were displaced from their home universities as a result of the hurricane were matched on race, gender, and age to a sample of 68 students who had been enrolled at Louisiana State University (LSU) prior to the hurricane. All students were enrolled at LSU at the time they participated in an online survey, conducted 3 months following the hurricane. The survey included symptom measures of depression, anxiety, stress, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other variables. Results indicated displaced students experienced more trauma exposure and greater subsequent distress, more symptoms of PTSD, and more symptoms of depression. Moreover, traumatic exposure and distress from the traumatic exposure were found to fully mediate depressive symptoms and posttraumatic symptoms in the displaced students.     

高中生强迫思考与抑郁状态：压力知觉的中介作用及不反应的调节作用

青少年时期是抑郁的高发时期,也是抑郁预防的重要时间窗口。为探讨强迫思考倾向和抑郁状态的关系及其作用机制,采用问卷法对501名高中生进行调查。结果发现：（1）高中生强迫思考倾向完全通过压力知觉正向预测抑郁状态;（2）不反应在强迫思考倾向与压力知觉之间起调节作用,当不反应水平较高时,强迫思考倾向通过压力知觉预测抑郁状态的作用较弱。研究结果有助于揭示强迫思考倾向对高中生抑郁状态的影响及作用机制,对积极预防高中生抑郁具有一定的启示。     

WOMEN WHO USE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE SHELTERS Changes in Depression Over Time

This study examined the levels of depression reported by women who had used a domestic violence shelter. Depressive symptoms were assessed three times: immediately after shelter exit, 10 weeks thereafter, and 6 months later. Whereas 83% of the women reported at least mild depression on the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale upon shelter exit, only 58% were depressed 10 weeks later. This did not change at the 6–month follow-up. An ecological, longitudinal model was evaluated to predict battered women's depression 8/12 months postshelter exit. Results of hierarchical regression analyses suggested that, after controlling for previous levels of depression, the women's feelings of powerlessness, experience of abuse, and decreased social support contributed to their depression symptoms. The women's scores on these three variables (feelings of powerlessness, abuse, and social support) at 10 weeks postshelter exit and at 6-month follow-up predicted depression at 6 months. Thus, there were both predictive and concurrent effects for these constructs. Implications for clinical and community interventions are discussed.     

汶川地震30个月后中小学生的身心状况研究

通过对汶川地震极重灾区的中小学生进行问卷调查,考察其在地震30个月后的创伤后应激障碍、抑郁、学习倦怠和创伤后成长等身心状况。结果发现：（1）震后30个月的中小学生创伤后应激障碍和抑郁情况较为严重,发生率分别达到6.6%和69.5%,女生和高年级学生是其高危人群;（2）学习倦怠总体情况比较轻微,学习的低效能感相对较严重;（3）创伤后成长的程度较高,且性别和年级间差异与创伤后应激障碍相似;（4）创伤后应激障碍、抑郁及学习倦怠等3个消极变量和创伤后成长之间分别为正相关、零相关和零相关。建议心理疏导人员将重心放在降低创伤后应激障碍和抑郁的程度及激发受灾学生的创伤后成长方面,并充分意识到创伤后成长程度较高的学生也有出现心理不良状况的可能性。     

Intraindividual relations between the intensity and disclosure of daily emotional events: The moderating role of depressive symptoms

Individuals with high levels of depressive symptoms tend to engage in lower levels of emotional disclosure than individuals who are lower in depressive symptoms. However, little is known about how depressive symptoms relate to the intraindividual relation between daily disclosure and the intensity of the daily events. The authors addressed these relations using a daily diary methodology. College students (N = 239) completed a measure of depression symptoms. They then completed measures of the intensity of the day's most unpleasant event and their disclosure of that event each day for 7 days. Results indicated that depression moderated the intensity-disclosure relation such that depression symptoms were associated with diminished emotional disclosure for high-intensity events but not for low-intensity events. Individuals with relatively higher levels of depressive symptoms also experienced unpleasant daily events at a higher intensity level than did individuals with relatively fewer symptoms. Sex differences emerged such that men were less likely than women to disclose high-intensity negative events. These findings extend the use of the diary methodology to the study of emotional disclosure and also suggest possible interventions for counseling psychology practitioners.     

Perfectionism,life events,and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model

The present research tested the hypothesis that perfectionists who experience stress are vulnerable to depression, in part because negative life events represent a failure to maintain control over negative outcomes. In Study 1, 215 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and control measures. The MPS assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was confirmed that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with both higher desire for control and greater perceived personal control. Study 2 examined whether trait levels of perfectionism moderate the link between life stress and symptoms of depression. In addition, prospective analyses investigated whether perfectionism accounts for changes in levels of depressive symptomatology over time. Two samples comprised of 374 students (Sample 1) and 173 students (Sample 2) completed the MPS and measures of major life stress and depression symptoms. Subjects in Sample 2 completed these measures at two timepoints separated by a three-month interval. Regression analyses indicated that self-oriented perfectionism and life stress interact significantly to produce higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, in Sample 2, self-oriented perfectionism at Time 1 was associated with increases in depression symptoms three months later for those individuals who had experienced a major life event. The results provide support for diathesis-stress models, which maintain that perfectionists exposed to life stress are vulnerable to symptoms of depression. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of personality, stress, and vulnerability to symptoms of depression. This research was supported by grants #410-89-0335, #410-91-8056, and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors.     

Religion and mental health among Nepal earthquake survivors in temporary tent villages

The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between mental health and the perceived importance of religion and the frequency of prayer among 200 children ages 10–18 years who lived in temporary camps for earthquake survivors in Nepal. The participants were examined using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) 6–18 and were asked about the importance of religion in their lives. In contrast to expectation that high perceived importance of religion and prayer frequency have positive impacts on mental health after earthquakes, the results indicated significantly higher levels of withdrawal/depression. The group that prayed less frequently after the earthquakes had significantly higher scores for somatic symptoms, withdrawal/depression, anxiety/depression, social immaturity, internalising problems, and total CBCL scores. However, the clinical risk group (T score of 65 or higher in the CBCL total score), no significant difference according to the importance of religion showed and frequency of daily prayer.     

Perfectionism, life events, and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model

The present research tested the hypothesis that perfectionists who experience stress are vulnerable to depression, in part because negative life events represent a failure to maintain control over negative outcomes. In Study 1, 215 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and control measures. The MPS assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was confirmed that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with both higher desire for control and greater perceived personal control. Study 2 examined whether trait levels of perfectionism moderate the link between life stress and symptoms of depression. In addition, prospective analyses investigated whether perfectionism accounts for changes in levels of depressive symptomatology over time. Two samples comprised of 374 students (Sample 1) and 173 students (Sample 2) completed the MPS and measures of major life stress and depression symptoms. Subjects in Sample 2 completed these measures at two timepoints separated by a three-month interval. Regression analyses indicated that self-oriented perfectionism and life stress interact significantly to produce higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, in Sample 2, self-oriented perfectionism at Time 1 was associated with increases in depression symptoms three months later for those individuals who had experienced a major life event. The results provide support for diathesis-stress models, which maintain that perfectionists exposed to life stress are vulnerable to symptoms of depression. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of personality, stress, and vulnerability to symptoms of depression. This research was supported by grants #410-89-0335, #410-91-8056, and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors.     

Social support, life events, and stress as modifiers of adjustment to bereavement by older adults

As part of a larger panel study, interviews were obtained from 3 samples of older adults: 45 persons who had recently lost a spouse, 40 who had lost a parent or child, and 45 who were not bereaved. Assessments were conducted before and after the deaths. In the widowed sample, health remained quite stable, but depression increased sharply, then remained elevated. Changes were minimal in the sample who had lost a parent or child and in the nonbereaved sample. Multiple regression procedures were used to identify factors that contribute to depression and health 9 months after the spouse's death. Postbereavement depression was associated with higher prebereavement depression, higher financial pressures, higher global stress, fewer new interests, and lower social support. Health was a function of prebereavement health, new interests, financial pressures, and global stress. In general, life events and resources had stronger effects in the widowed sample than in the comparison samples.     

Parenting stress,general distress,and coparenting quality: An Actor–Partner Interdependence Moderation Model

Mothers and fathers who experience parenting stress are more likely to show symptoms of distress, such as elevated levels of anxiety and/or depression. Identifying the buffering or exacerbating factors that might moderate the association between parenting stress and general distress can help inform theoretical models aimed at better understanding the reality faced by parents during challenging times, as well as improve intervention strategies. The objective of this study was to examine whether coparenting quality plays a moderating role in the association between parenting stress and general distress in parents of children in middle childhood. Eighty-one couples were asked to complete questionnaires pertaining to their levels of parenting stress, the quality of their coparenting relationship, and their symptoms of distress. Using an Actor–Partner Interdependence Moderation Model, our results revealed that elevated levels of parenting stress were associated with elevated levels of general distress, whereas higher scores of coparenting quality were associated with fewer symptoms of distress. Our results also showed a moderating role for coparenting quality in the association between actor parenting stress and actor/partner distress. These findings highlight the importance of pursuing the investigation of dyadic effects within personal relationships.     

Examination stress, personality and self-reported physical symptoms

Thirty-nine undergraduate students were investigated to determine the effects of examination stress on self-reported physical symptoms and sensations. Testing was undertaken six weeks prior to a final examination (phase I), immediately after the written part of the examination was over (phase II), and 12–14 days afterwards, but before an oral examination (phase III). The results showed that examination stress was associated with an increase in state anxiety and self-reported physical symptoms with the exception of heart-complaints which showed a gradual decline over the three experimental phases. In phase III, all symptom measures showed a reduction below baseline levels and below the control group's levels. Correlation analyses revealed that symptom scores were associated with variables reflecting psychological vulnerability (e.g. Recent stress and Neuroticism) and dysphoric affect, especially anxiety. The results are discussed in light of theories of attribution, attentional focusing and phychophysiological activation.     

Effect of symptom information and validity scale information on the malingering of depression on the MMPI-2

MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) data from college students who were attempting to malinger depression (199 women and 171 men) were compared to MMPI-2 data from students who responded honestly (50 women and 45 men). Mean MMPI-2 scores were compared with analyses of variance, and students' success in malingering depression was evaluated with criteria based on cutting scores for validity indexes and on the clinical scales commonly associated with depression. Students who were given information about the validity scales or about the symptoms of depression were more successful at malingering than students who received no information, indicating that malingerers of depression may be able to elude detection by the MMPI-2 if they are informed about the validity scales or the symptoms of depression.     

Instructional ecology and academic responding time for students at three levels of teacher-perceived behavioral competence

Thirty third and fourth grade students, ages 8-10 years, were observed systematically over two entire school days to examine the nature of instruction and academic responding time for students at varying levels of teacher-perceived behavioral competence. Data were recorded on six categories in 10-sec intervals. While the amount of time spent in active academic responses (about 45 min in a typical school day) did not differ significantly between groups, it was found that students perceived to be lower in behavioral competence spent more time engaged in certain inappropriate behaviors and received more teacher disapproval. Yet, students grouped on the basis of teachers' perceptions of their behavioral competence did not differ on the majority of instructional or student responding variables. Findings related to the relationship between responding times and achievement also are presented. Implications of findings for understanding the classroom ecology for students exhibiting behavior problems are discussed.     

Prepartum autobiographical memory specificity predicts post-traumatic stress symptoms following complicated pregnancy

Prior research has shown that reduced autobiographical memory specificity predicts an increase in post-traumatic stress severity in traumatised individuals. Studies have also demonstrated that reduced memory specificity predicts later symptoms of depression after pregnancy-related life stress. So far, no reported studies have tested the predictive value of memory specificity at the onset of a potentially traumatic situation. Therefore the aim of the present study was to investigate whether prenatal memory specificity would predict post-traumatic stress after complicated pregnancy. The results demonstrate that women who retrieved fewer specific memories with a pregnancy-related content to positive cues during pregnancy (i.e., directly after hospitalisation) reported more post-traumatic stress 6 weeks after giving birth. This relationship remained significant after controlling for variables that were related to both baseline autobiographical memory specificity and later post-traumatic stress. A similar pattern was found for depression symptomatology, even when somatic symptoms were excluded from the analyses. Taken together, these data suggest that the relationship of memory specificity with later depression can be generalised to post-traumatic stress symptoms.     

The effects of analytical and experiential rumination on autobiographical memory specificity in individuals with a history of major depression

This study examined the relationship between analytical rumination and autobiographical memory specificity in participants with a history of depression. Participants completed the autobiographical memory test twice, once before and once after an 8 min manipulation designed to increase either an abstract/analytical or concrete/experiential mode of information processing. Results indicated a significant three-way time (pre, post)×manipulation (analytical, experiential)×depressive rumination (high, low) interaction. This interaction was the result of a significant decline in memory specificity from pre- to post-manipulation in individuals reporting high levels of rumination about symptoms when depressed who were allocated to the analytical condition. The findings of this study extend previous work, suggesting that low memory specificity in formerly depressed patients may be a function of state levels of analytical self-focus, with this cognitive style being more easily reinstated in the recovery phase in those who report a greater trait tendency to ruminate about symptoms when low in mood.     

The psychological effects of parental mental health on children experiencing disaster: the experience of Bolu earthquake in Turkey

Disasters affect families as a whole, and symptoms displayed by a family member may lead to secondary traumatizations for other members of the family, especially the children. This study examines the effects of parental psychopathology and family functioning on children's psychological problems six months after the earthquake in Bolu, Turkey. Forty-nine children aged between 7 and 14 and their parents were randomly chosen from among 800 families living in a survivor camp in Bolu. Both the children and parents were assessed by trained psychiatrists and psychologists using self-report measures for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety symptoms six months after the earthquake. Family functioning in survivor families was also assessed using the Family Assessment Device (FAD). The results showed that the severity of PTSD in children was mainly affected by the presence of PTSD and the severity of depression in the father. State and trait anxiety scores of children were related to general family functioning. The constellation of PTSD symptomatology was different in fathers than in mothers: the most common type of symptoms was "externalizing" in fathers with PTSD. This study supports the notion that the mere presence of PTSD in parents may not be enough to explain the relational process in families experiencing trauma. Our findings with earthquake survivors suggest that when fathers become more irritable and detached because of PTSD symptoms, their symptoms may affect children more significantly.