Response selection strategies and realism of confidence judgments

Two studies were conducted to examine how response selection strategy is related to confidence ratings and to performance on general knowledge questions. In both studies subjects were asked to answer 80 general knowledge questions and to rate their confidence in the correctness of the answer selected. A pilot study, in which subjects thought aloud while answering general knowledge questions, was carried out to identify different response selection strategies. In the first study, 40 subjects were asked to indicate which of four strategies (immediate recognition, inference, intuition, or guessing) they used for selecting an answer. In Study 2, think aloud reports from 20 subjects were coded into the same four strategies. The distribution of strategies differed between the studies, but there were very similar relations among strategy, confidence, and correctness of answer in the two studies. Response selection strategy was related to correctness of answer when confidence was partialed out. More specifically, immediate recognition was associated with higher proportion correct than with the other strategies. It was also found that ratings of how difficult the knowledge questions were to fellow students of the subjects were on a much more realistic level than the confidence ratings were. It is concluded that people could improve their confidence judgments by taking into account (a) how difficult a question is to other people, and (b) the response selection strategy used for answering the question.     

Cognitive components of troubleshooting strategies

This study investigated the kinds of knowledge necessary to learn an important troubleshooting strategy, elimination. A total of 50 college-level students searched for the source of failures in simple digital networks. Production system modelling suggested that students using a common but simpler backtracking strategy would learn the more advanced elimination strategy if they applied certain domain-specific knowledge and the general-purpose problem-solving strategy of reductio ad absurdum. In an experiment, students solved network troubleshooting problems after being trained with either the domain-specific knowledge, the reductio ad absurdum strategy, both types of knowledge, or neither. Students needed both the domain-specific and general knowledge identified by the models in order to significantly increase their elimination use.     

Specific and general autobiographical knowledge in adults with autism spectrum disorders: The role of personal goals

Autobiographical knowledge is stored hierarchically, at both specific and general levels of representation. It has also been proposed that the self is the structure around which autobiographical memories are organised. The current series of studies assessed whether the autobiographical memory difficulties observed in adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) could be due to problems in using the self as an effective memory cue. A series of cueing paradigms were used to assess the accessibility of both specific and general autobiographical knowledge relating to (i) currently pursued goals (either high or low in self–concordance) and (ii) goals that participants were not currently pursuing. Results demonstrated that while event-specific knowledge was impaired in the ASD group, general event knowledge appeared relatively intact. Moreover, while both event-specific and general event knowledge were organised around goals of the self in control participants, a corresponding relationship was only observed for general event knowledge in the ASD group.     

“SECRET TESTS”

The current study was undertaken to develop a typology of “secret tests,”—that is, social strategies that people use to acquire knowledge about the state of their opposite-sex relationships. Furthermore, the influences of relationship type and respondent sex on strategy use were assessed. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed with data obtained from a total of 181 respondents. Findings suggest 14 basic categories of “secret tests” that comprise 7 cluster types in a two-dimensional spatial representation. Passive, active, and interactive strategy types were evident. Females reported more secret test strategies than did males, and people in opposite-sex relationships that were in transition from platonic to romantic reported more strategies than people in either platonic cross-sex or romantic cross-sex relationships. Differences were found as well in the type of secret test most likely to be employed as a function of respondent sex and relationship type.     

Data‐driven approaches to information access

This paper summarizes three lines of research that are motivated by the practical problem of helping users find information from external data sources, most notably computers. The application areas include information retrieval, text categorization, and question answering. A common theme in these applications is that practical information access problems can be solved by analyzing the statistical properties of words in large volumes of real world texts. The same statistical properties constrain human performance, thus we believe that solutions to practical information access problems can shed light on human knowledge representation and reasoning.     

Question answering from structured knowledge sources

We present an implemented approach for domain-restricted question answering from structured knowledge sources, based on robust semantic analysis in a hybrid NLP system architecture. We perform question interpretation and answer extraction in an architecture that builds on a lexical-conceptual structure for question interpretation, which is interfaced with domain-specific concepts and properties in a structured knowledge base. Question interpretation involves a limited amount of domain-specific inferences, and accounts for higher-level quantificational questions. Question interpretation and answer extraction are modular components that interact in clearly defined ways. We derive so-called proto queries from the linguistic representations, which provide partial constraints for answer extraction from the underlying knowledge sources. The search queries we construct from proto queries effectively compute minimal spanning trees from the underlying knowledge sources. Our approach naturally extends to multilingual question answering, and has been developed as a prototype system for two application domains: the domain of Nobel prize winners, and the domain of Language Technology, on the basis of the large ontology underlying the information portal LT World.     

非监控类别学习的分类策略与表征

类别学习是人类对不同类别加以归类的过程。类别信息的表征、分类策略运用的特点一直是类别学习研究的重点。非监控类别学习可分为直接的非监控类别学习和间接的非监控类别学习。直接的非监控类别学习(非限制任务, 限制任务)中被试的分类策略具有分类“单维度倾向”策略特点,类别变异程度会影响类别表征; 间接的非监控类别学习更倾向形成相似性表征, 直接的非监控类别学习则为基于规则表征。现有的非监控类别学习的理论对分类策略和表征的解释仍显薄弱, 不同学习任务下类别迁移和知识效应的研究还存在不足, 未来研究还需要进一步验证知识效应对非监控类别学习的认知加工过程的影响、探索影响类别表征形成的因素等问题。     

The effect of type and timing of feedback on learning from multiple-choice tests

Two experiments investigated how the type and timing of feedback influence learning from a multiple-choice test. First, participants read 12 prose passages, which covered various general knowledge topics (e.g., The Sun) and ranged between 280 and 300 words in length. Next, they took an initial six-alternative, multiple-choice test on information contained in the passages. Feedback was given immediately for some of the multiple-choice items or after delay for other items. Participants were either shown the correct answer as feedback (standard feedback) or were allowed to keep answering until the correct answer was discovered (answer-until-correct feedback). Learning from the test was assessed on a delayed cued-recall test. The results indicated that delayed feedback led to superior final test performance relative to immediate feedback. However, type of feedback did not matter: discovering the correct answer through answer-until-correct feedback produced equivalent performance relative to standard feedback. This research suggests that delaying the presentation of feedback after a test is beneficial to learning because of the spaced presentation of information.     

基于CD-CAT的多策略RRUM模型及其选题方法开发

在有多种解题策略的认知诊断问题情境中, 用每个Q矩阵表示一种解题策略, 由此将单策略认知诊断RRUM模型拓广为多策略RRUM模型(MS-RRUM)。随后, 在应用MS-RRUM模型的CD-CAT中开发了适用于多策略情境的MAP参数估计法和多策略香农熵(MSSHE)选题法。将MSSHE选题法与随机选题法分别在不同属性数量、不同测验长度下进行比较, 结果发现前者对被试的策略和认知状态判准率都显著优于后者, 而且都很理想。这样就顺利实现了在CD-CAT做策略诊断的目标。     

Factor analysis of variability measures in eight independent samples of children and adults

Variability in strategy use has been measured and conceptualized in several ways. The present study sought to determine whether a sample of variability measures could be reduced to a smaller number of factors that the individual measures had in common. Factor analysis of five commonly used variability measures was performed separately on data from eight independent samples of children and adults. The results revealed that the variability measures could be reduced to one of two general types of variability: strategy diversity, which refers to the sheer number of strategies used, and strategy change, which refers to the number of trial-by-trial changes in strategy use. Support for this two-factor model of variability was found for all samples of children and adults. Moreover, each type of variability had distinctive relations with cognitive performance that varied with age. In general, strategy diversity was positively related to recall for children but not adults, whereas strategy change was negatively related to recall for adults but not children. Based on this evidence, three recommendations for researchers studying strategy variability are described.     

Testing for Independent Effects of Prosocial Knowledge and Technical Knowledge on Skill and Performance

This study extended previous research (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997) on antecedents of job performance by testing for independent effects of prosocial and technical knowledge in a sample of 208 medical students. Results show that prosocial knowledge is uncorrelated with technical knowledge and that it contributes incremental variance to clinical performance in Primary Care after accounting for technical knowledge and clinical skill. Findings indicate Agreeableness is an important correlate of prosocial knowledge but not of technical knowledge. Unexpectedly, cognitive ability is not significantly related to either kind of knowledge or clinical performance. These results reinforce the idea that knowledge is a primary determinant of performance and that one type of knowledge, prosocial, has roots in Agreeableness, whereas a different type of knowledge, technical, does not.     

Organization in visual episodic memory: relationships between verbalized knowledge, strategy use, and performance

Relationships between verbalized knowledge (metamemory), strategy use, and performance were examined in a memory task for visually presented episodes. Kindergarten, second-grade, and fifth-grade students were asked to reconstruct a sequence of pictures forming an episode from an array of original pictures and foils. The episodes varied on two dimensions; materials type and the logic of the sequence. Materials were either typical (familiar animal characters and scenes) or atypical (geometric figures) story materials. Sequences either readily conveyed a story (logical) or were rearranged to present a random ordering of pictures (illogical). Children were questioned about their use of a story line to help remember the picture sequences (general questioning) and were asked more specific questions concerning the reasons for their picture selection during the task (specific questioning). Children at all ages recalled logical sequences better than illogical ones. Second- and fifth-grade children recalled animal episodes better than geometric form episodes. Children at all ages showed a correspondence between strategy use and metamemory as assessed by verbalization of relationships among pictures during the specific questioning. However, when the more typical general question format was used to assess metamemory, strategy use preceded verbalized knowledge of strategy use.     

FERMI: A Flexible Expert Reasoner with Multi-Domain Inferencing

Expert reasoning combines voluminous domain-specific knowledge with more general factual and strategic knowledge. Whereas expert system builders have recognized the need for specificity and problem-solving researchers the need for generality, few attempts have been made to develop expert reasoning engines combining different kinds of knowledge at different levels of generality. This paper reports on the FERMI project, a computer-implemented expert reasoner in the natural sciences that encodes factual and strategic knowledge in separate semantic hierarchies. The principled decomposition of knowledge according to type and level of specificity yields both power and cross-doman generality, as demonstrated in FERMI's ability to apply the same principles of invariance and decomposition to solve problems in fluid statics, DC-circuits, and centroid location. Hierarchical knowledge representation and problem-solving principles are discussed, and illustrative problem-solving traces are presented.     

Computer Understanding of Conventional Metaphoric Language

Metaphor is a conventional and ordinary part of language. An approach to metaphor, based on the explicit representation of knowledge about metaphors, has been developed. This approach asserts that the interpretation of conventional metaphoric language should proceed through the direct application of specific knowledge about the metaphors in the language. MIDAS (Metaphor Interpretation, Denotation, and Acquisition System) is a computer program that has been developed based upon this approach. MIDAS can be used to represent knowledge about conventional metaphors, interpret metaphoric language by applying this knowledge, and dynamically learn new metaphors as they are encountered during normal processing.     

International Representation in the Psychological Literature

The author searched PsycLit records to examine the representation of psychological research from outside the US and changes in international representation over time. American research dominates, but international representation has increased since 1975. Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and Israel in particular have become better represented. In contrast, developing nations have remained poorly represented for most of the time period examined. Relative national influence may accurately reflect the numbers of psychologists in general, and research psychologists in particular, in each nation. Psychologists in developing nations also focus on teaching, clinical, and social issues, and have few resources for research activities. International representation is likely to continue increasing.     

Education and Career Aspirations of Palestinian and U.S. Youth

Abstract

Belief in free will or determinism is related to attitudes toward punishment and to locus of control. The relationships remain ambiguous, however, perhaps because the belief has been viewed historically as a unidimensional construct. The responses of 507 American undergraduates to a free will-determinism questionnaire established the existence of two types of deterministic belief—psychosocial and religious-philosophical—and a separate, independent belief in libertarianism. Beliefs about punishment were multidimensional, consisting of attitudes toward punitiveness and rehabilitation. Respondents with higher scores on psychosocial or religious-philosophical determinism or libertarianism were more punitive than those with lower scores. High scores on either type of determinism were associated with more external locus of control scores. Respondents who rated the free will-determinism items for themselves and those who rated them for people in general differed on a number of dependent measures.     

隐性知识的具身机制、转化与管理

隐性知识是知识经济时代的发展关键,在多个学科的知识体系中占有重要位置。由于隐性知识有内隐表征、主观经验和情境性等多种跨层属性,导致管理学、体育学等学科面临隐性知识转化与管理的难题。隐性知识本质上是具身性的,身体经验与情境的互动为个体在知识系统中归纳与形成隐性知识提供了基础。隐性知识的提取与应用机制为组织对隐性知识的转化与管理提供了桥梁,而隐性知识的具身机制是其提取与应用的依据。本文将基于具身认知理论,结合多个学科的研究证据,对不同情境下的隐性知识提取与应用机制进行分析,旨在梳理出隐性知识的具身机制,并针对隐性知识的未来研究、转化与管理提出建议。     

DOES CONTEXT AFFECT STAFFING DECISIONS? THE CASE OF GENERAL MANAGERS

A resource dependency framework (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978) is applied to general manager (GM) selection decisions. Hypotheses are developed predicting associations between organizational contextual features (environmental instability, strategy, organizational performance, size) and background characteristics of GMs selected to head business units (organizational familiarity, functional experience, age). Data were collected on 40 recent GM selection decisions. Findings indicate that organizational contextual features influence the type of GM selected. Key results are that industry instability, organizational strategy, and organizational size were associated with GMs'organizational familiarity (i.e., tenure levels), and that organizational strategy was associated with the age of selected GMs. This study provides support for the application of a contingency perspective to human resource management.     

Data-driven type checking in open domain question answering

Many open domain question answering systems answer questions by first harvesting a large number of candidate answers, and then picking the most promising one from the list. One criterion for this answer selection is type checking: deciding whether the candidate answer is of the semantic type expected by the question. We define a general strategy for building redundancy-based type checkers, built around the notions of comparison set and scoring method, where the former provide a set of potential answer types and the latter are meant to capture the relation between a candidate answer and an answer type. Our focus is on scoring methods. We discuss nine such methods, provide a detailed experimental comparison and analysis of these methods, and find that the best performing scoring method performs at the same level as knowledge-intensive methods, although our experiments do not reveal a clear-cut answer on the question whether any of the scoring methods we consider should be preferred over the others.     

Endophenotypes and the diagnosis of personality disorders

It has been suggested that psychiatric diagnosis should come to depend on endophenotypes, in order to define more precisely the mechanisms behind mental disorders. This construct is associated with the assumption that mental processes can be reduced to activity at a neuronal level. The approach has had a strong influence on the conceptual basis of proposals for DSM-5, but could be consistent either with categorical or dimensional diagnosis. However, application of endophenotypes to personality disorders is unlikely for the foreseeable future, given an insufficient knowledge of etiology and pathogenesis.