Can Tutors Monitor Students' Understanding Accurately?

Students learn more and gain greater understanding from one-to-one tutoring. The preferred explanation has been that the tutors' pedagogical skills are responsible for the learning gains. Pedagogical skills involve skillful execution of tactics, such as giving explanations and feedback, or selecting the appropriate problems or questions to ask the students. Skillful execution of these pedagogical skills requires that they are adaptive and tailored to the individual students' understanding. To be adaptive, the tutors must be able to monitor students' understanding accurately, so that they know how and when to deliver the explanations, feedback, and questions. Before exploring whether in fact tutoring effectiveness can be attributed to tutors' pedagogical skills, we must first ascertain the accuracy with which tutors monitor their students' understanding. This article thus investigated monitoring accuracy from both the tutors' and the students' perspectives. By coding and recoding some data collected in a previous study, the article shows that tutors could only assess students' normative understanding from the perspective of the tutors' knowledge, but tutors were dismal at diagnosing the students' alternative understanding from the perspective of the students' knowledge.     

Helping students acquire belief-inconsistent and belief-consistent science facts: Comparisons between individual and dyad study using elaborative interrogatin,self-selected study and repetitious-reading

One hundred and eighty four grade 6 and 7 students processed 32 factual statements in one of two studies reported here. Half the statements were consistent with the students' prior knowledge, whereas the remaining facts were inconsistent with it. Students studied the facts alone, or with a partner, by: (1) answering 'why' questions; (2) reading the information for understanding; or (3) selecting their own method of study. Recall (free and cued) and recognition measures (immediate, 30-day, and 60-day) were used to assess learning (immediate, 30-day, and 60-day). Instructions to use elaborative interrogation produced superior learning gains relative to instructing students to read information for understanding or to select their own study strategy. Overall, there were no performance differneces as a function of individual versus dyad study. The quality of the elaborative interrogation study response affected learning. When students generated or listened to a partner's response that clarified the target facts, learning of that information was superior to when students generated or listened to other types of study responses.     

Students' Multi‐Modal Re‐Presentations of Scientific Knowledge and Creativity

The paper brings the results of a project that passed on to students the opportunity for re‐presenting their acquired knowledge via the construction of multi‐modal ‘learning resources’. These ‘learning resources’ substituted for lectures and books and became the official learning sources in the classroom. The rational for the project was multiple: a. It was expected that the process of re‐contextualizing the scientific concepts into students' lifeworlds, their metaphors and into their everyday language, would benefit both, the creators and the consumers, b. Students were expected to develop multiliteracies in addition to gaining authorship and c. The open and encouraging learning environment that enabled multiple and multimodal ways of presentation was expected to promote small c creativity to be expressed in the diversified natures of the constructed materials. The results indicate that the stimulating and encouraging environment did promote creative divergence in students' re‐presented products. This was found to be true for Relative Creativity (number of higher creativity products as compared to lower ones), and Diversified Creativity (changing the nature of the constructed product from semester to semester). These materials as learning resources were shown to be as effective as lectures and the construction period was shown to add to students' knowledge gains. An interesting effect of frontal lectures was found which is attributed to possible different ways of knowledge organization that are induced under different learning conditions.     

Metamodeling Knowledge: Developing Students' Understanding of Scientific Modeling

We argue that learning about the nature and utility of scientific models and engaging in the process of creating and testing models should be a central focus of science education. To realize this vision, we created and evaluated the Model-Enhanced ThinkerTools (METT) Curriculum, which is an inquiry-oriented physics curriculum for middle school students in which they learn about the nature of scientific models and engage in the process of modeling. Key components of our approach include enabling students to create computer models that express their own theories of force and motion, evaluate their models using criteria such as accuracy and plausibility, and engage in discussions about models and the process of modeling. Curricular trials in four science classes of an urban middle school indicate that this approach can facilitate a significant improvement in students' understanding of modeling. Further analyses revealed that the approach was particularly successful in clarifying and broadening students' understanding of the nature and purpose of models. The METT Curriculum also led to significant improvements in inquiry skills and physics knowledge. Comparisons of METT students' performance with that of prior ThinkerTools students suggest that the acquisition of metamodeling knowledge contributed to these gains. In particular, METT students wrote significantly better conclusions on the inquiry test and performed better on some of the far-transfer problems on the physics test. Finally, correlational results, including significant correlations of pretest modeling and inquiry scores with posttest physics scores, suggests that developing knowledge of modeling and inquiry transfers to the learning of science content within such a curriculum. Taken together, the findings suggest that an emphasis on model-based inquiry, accompanied by the development of metamodeling knowledge, can facilitate learning science content while also developing students' understanding of the scientific enterprise.     

A New–old Characterisation of Logical Knowledge

We seek means of distinguishing logical knowledge from other kinds of knowledge, especially mathematics. The attempt is restricted to classical two-valued logic and assumes that the basic notion in logic is the proposition. First, we explain the distinction between the parts and the moments of a whole, and theories of ‘sortal terms’, two theories that will feature prominently. Second, we propose that logic comprises four ‘momental sectors’: the propositional and the functional calculi, the calculus of asserted propositions, and rules for (in)valid deduction, inference or substitution. Third, we elaborate on two neglected features of logic: the various modes of negating some part(s) of a proposition R, not only its ‘external’ negation not-R; and the assertion of R in the pair of propositions ‘it is (un)true that R’ belonging to the neglected logic of asserted propositions, which is usually left unstated. We also address the overlooked task of testing the asserted truth-value of R. Fourth, we locate logic among other foundational studies: set theory and other theories of collections, metamathematics, axiomatisation, definitions, model theory, and abstract and operator algebras. Fifth, we test this characterisation in two important contexts: the formulation of some logical paradoxes, especially the propositional ones; and indirect proof-methods, especially that by contradiction. The outcomes differ for asserted propositions from those for unasserted ones. Finally, we reflect upon self-referring self-reference, and on the relationships between logical and mathematical knowledge. A subject index is appended.     

Conceptions of learning,approaches to studying and personal development in UK higher education

Background Students in higher education are known to vary in their conceptions of learning, their approaches to studying, and the personal development and personal change that result. Aims This study aimed to explore the relationships among these four aspects of students' experience; to examine whether there were variations across academic subjects and across departments in each subject; and to explore whether there were changes from first year to after graduation. Sample Students in the first year and the final year of the undergraduate programmes at 15 departments, five offering each of three subjects: bioscience, business studies, and sociology. Method Participants completed a questionnaire containing four instruments and were given a similar questionnaire roughly two years later (when the entering students were in their third year, and when the exiting students were in their second year after graduation). Results The students' conceptions of learning showed a clear relationship with their approaches to studying, but the relationships with their personal development and personal change were much weaker. The students' scores were significantly related to age and gender and showed some significant differences across academic subjects and departments. However, there was little change in their scores over time. Conclusion Students' approaches to studying are influenced by their conceptions of learning and are relatively consistent across different contexts. In contrast, their reports of personal change and development seem to be determined by their implicit theories on entering higher education.     

Individual differences in students' retention of knowledge and conceptual structures learned in university and high school courses: the case of test anxiety

The purpose of this research was to assess individual differences in students' retention of knowledge several years after studying the material. Assessment of retention of materials as a function of students' test anxiety can allow one to evaluate whether high test-anxious students' original deficient academic performance and organization of the materials are due to a retrieval deficit or a deficit in learning and knowledge organization. In two studies, students with different test-anxiety levels completed tasks that enabled us to evaluate both students' levels of knowledge and their cognitive organization of the materials. The tasks were administered either at the end of the course, or at different retention intervals up to 7 years after the end of learning. Results indicated that whereas high test-anxious students tested at the end of the courses performed worse than other students on tests of knowledge and cognitive organization, high test-anxious students tested at various retention intervals after the courses performed as well as other students. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Students' conceptions of constructivist learning in different programme years and different learning environments

Background Constructivist views of learning have brought conceptions of learning to attention again. Conceptions are considered important determinants of effective learning. Students can differ in their conceptions depending on their educational experience. Aims The present study investigated students' conceptions of constructivist learning. Do students with greater experience in their academic programme differ in their conceptions of constructivist learning compared to students with less experience/ In addition, to what extent are conceptions of constructivist learning different in a conventional, lecture‐based curriculum compared to a constructivist, problem‐based learning curriculum/ Samples Three groups (i.e. first‐year, second‐year, and third‐year students) in two different curricula (i.e. conventional, lecture‐based and constructivist, problem‐based) were tested. Methods A cross‐sectional design was used. Students' conceptions of constructivist activities (i.e. knowledge construction, cooperative learning, self‐regulation, use of authentic problems, self‐perceived inability to learn, and motivation to learn) were measured by a questionnaire. Data were analyzed using a two‐way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Results A significant difference in questionnaire's scores between year 1 and year 2 (but not between year 2 and 3) was found with respect to conceptions about knowledge construction, self‐regulation, and the use of authentic problems, but not for cooperative learning and motivation to learn. For self‐perceived inability, an interaction effect was found. Furthermore, results showed significant differences between both curriculum groups on all dependent measures. Conclusions Differences in conceptions can be perceived between students who enter a new learning programme (i.e. higher education) and students who already have one year of experience in higher education. Among students with more than one year of educational experience, differences disappear. Furthermore, this study shows that the learning environment can make a difference with respect to students' conceptions of constructivist learning activities.     

Extracurricular activities of Dutch University students and their effect on employment opportunities as perceived by both students and organizations

Research on biographical data suggests that recruiters draw inferences about candidates' abilities and attributes based on résumé information. However, few studies have explored students' attributions with regard to the experiences that are relevant in enhancing employment opportunities. The aim of the present study is to fill this gap by analyzing the effect of university students' extracurricular activities (ECAs) on their perceived employment opportunities. Specifically, we combine a large sample of students with recruiters from a wide range of sectors in the Netherlands. Students completed a questionnaire, while recruiters participated in an experiment and semi‐structured interviews. Students' expectations about the value of ECAs for their employment opportunities were found to be misaligned with recruiters' viewpoints. Students expected academic performance to be more relevant for employment opportunities than ECAs, whereas recruiters stated the opposite. Students expected an internship to be the most valued ECA, whereas most recruiters prioritized a board year and emphasized students' motivation and ability to demonstrate the learning gained from ECAs in general. Implications for further biodata research are discussed.     

Reversing the spiral toward futility

The most difficult task for the counselor is to find a way to reverse the spiral of the ′60's that has propelled black students toward futility. The committed counselor should communicate honesty and sincerity to the students, know the facts about the black experience, enlighten his administration about black students' needs, and have first-hand knowledge about students' feelings regarding their curriculum.     

Learning Hebrew by Writing in English

This essay explores a midrange teaching and learning issue regarding the teaching of biblical languages and one strategy for addressing the issue. Seminary students do not yield a great enough return in exchange for the investment they are required to make in learning biblical languages. Students invest great time and money, but they do not learn to use the biblical languages to think critically about the Bible. This essay argues that a fruitful strategy for addressing this midrange issue is to require students to write in English about the Hebrew language. This strategy fosters students' ability to think critically about the biblical text. It also fosters their ability to use their budding knowledge of a biblical language to engage questions of meaning and issues of interpretation.     

Conceptions of learning and approaches to studying among White and ethnic minority students in distance education

Background. The attainment of White students at UK institutions of higher education tends to be higher than that of students from other ethnic groups, but the causes of this are unclear. Aims. This study compared White students and students from other ethnic groups in their conceptions of learning, their approaches to studying, and their academic attainment. Sample. A stratified sample of 1,146 White students and 1,146 students from other ethnic groups taking courses by distance learning with the UK Open University. Methods. The Mental Models section of the Inventory of Learning Styles and the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory were administered in a postal survey. Results. The students' questionnaire scores were contaminated by response bias, which varied across different ethnic groups. When adjusted to control for response bias, the scores on the two questionnaires shared 37.2% of their variance and made a significant contribution to predicting the students' attainment. White students were more likely to exhibit a meaning‐directed learning pattern, whereas Asian and Black students were more likely to exhibit a reproduction‐directed learning pattern. However, the variation in attainment across different ethnic groups remained significant when their questionnaire scores and prior qualifications were taken into account. Conclusions. There is a strong relationship between students' conceptions of learning and their approaches to studying, and variations in conceptions of learning in different ethnic groups give rise to variations in approaches to studying. However, factors other than prior qualifications and conceptions of learning are responsible for variation in attainment across different ethnic groups.     

Do undergraduates' motives for studying change as they progress through their degrees?

Background. Research has suggested that students can approach their studies with different goals, one goal being to understand material (mastery) and another to obtain better grades than others (performance). Aim. The main aim of this study was to assess whether these goals change as students progress through their degrees. Sample. 1857 students at a Scottish university. Methods. Students were asked to complete a questionnaire as they waited to register for their courses. The questionnaire was based on an achievement motivation questionnaire developed by Elliot and McGregor (2001) to assess students' mastery and performance goals; there were also questions on students' expectations about their courses. Results. Students in years 2, 3 and 4 were substantially less likely to want to master their subjects than students in year 1. They were also more concerned with grades and less likely to expect to enjoy their courses. Conclusion. The decline in students' motivation to master their subjects raises potentially important questions about whether pressures for grades undermine students' interest in their studies.     

Retrieval practice and retention of course content in a middle school science classroom

We investigated the effect of retrieval practice (i.e., the use of testing to enhance learning) by middle school students on science learning in an authentic educational setting. For initial study, all students (n = 39) read a science text and made study notes about the text, a regular study activity in their course. For restudy (2 days later), students either copied their notes or did retrieval practice. For the final test (an additional 2 days later), all students did a recall task from memory. Students in the retrieval practice condition showed better retention of information than students in the copy condition. These results add to a growing body of research on the use of retrieval practice as an effective learning tool for retention within authentic school settings.     

First- and Second-Grade Urban Students' Path to Comprehension Strategy Use: A Practitioner's Framework

This study seeks to explain what first- and second-grade African American, urban students who participated in an explicit comprehension strategy instruction (ECSI) program learned about comprehension strategies and how this knowledge supports self-regulated strategy use. The study was also designed to compare these students' knowledge with those who were exposed to less systematic comprehension strategy instruction. Students who participated in ECSI had more awareness and knowledge of strategies and applied them more frequently than students not in ECSI. A practitioner's framework is proposed to support teachers in developing their own ECSI.     

RESEARCH INTO PRACTICE

The effectiveness of two variations of elaborative interrogation for group settings was investigated in an experiment where college students learned factual sentence information. The interrogation strategy variations were compared to a challenging, ecologically valid control condition in which students were instructed to use whatever strategies they thought would work best for the sentence‐learning task. Results indicated that the written and the oral variations of elaborative interrogation were equally effective and that both variations significantly enhanced the students' performance on an associative matching task but not on a recall task.     

Parallel reading and mathematics growth for English learners: Does timing of reclassification matter?

This study compared reading and mathematics growth trajectories in a statewide dataset of 33,715 students across third through fifth grades. Specifically, we examined growth for English Learners (ELs) who were reclassified as no longer needing English Language services at different grade levels as compared to their never-EL peers. Overall, EL students performed significantly below never-EL students on reading and mathematics assessments at Grade 3, with EL students making greater academic gains across time points than never-EL students. Students who were reclassified after third grade and after fourth grade closed, or began to close, the academic opportunity gap by the end of fifth grade, providing promising evidence suggesting that reclassification policies are adequate for identifying those students who no longer need EL services. Students who continued to be classified as EL from third through fifth grades continued to score significantly lower than never-ELs, and in many cases other EL groups, indicating that there exists a group of EL students who continue to make inadequate reading and mathematics gains across late elementary school. Implications for policy and practices that support EL students' mathematics and reading growth are discussed.