When Is Dominance Related to Smiling? Assigned Dominance, Dominance Preference, Trait Dominance, and Gender as Moderators

We investigated gender and different types of dominance measures as potential moderators of the relation between dominance and smiling. We asked participants about their preference for either a dominant or a subordinate role (dominance preference), randomly assigned one of these roles to them (assigned dominance), and assessed trait dominance, felt dominance, and perceived dominance. Participants had two 8-min dyadic interactions in same-gender groups (33 all-women dyads, 36 all-men dyads), in which one was assigned to be the owner of an art gallery and the other was assigned to be the assistant to the owner. Interactions were videotaped, and smiling and perceived dominance were assessed on the basis of the videotapes. Both the particular dominance measure and gender moderated the relation between dominance and smiling. Results showed that for women in subordinate positions, those who wanted to be in a subordinate position smiled more than those who wanted to be in a dominant position. No such effect occurred for men and for participants in assigned dominant positions.     

On the (in)stability of dominance hierarchies in the cichlid fish Oreochromis mossambicus

Dominance hierarchies were studied during 8 weeks in eight heterosexual captive groups of Oreochromis mossambicus at the onset of sexual maturity. Linearity was assessed for each group on a weekly basis based on the Landau's index (h) and on the procedure described by Appleby [Appleby MC (1983): Animal Behaviour 31:600–608]. Week-to-week stability of the hierarchical structures was measured using the Burk's stability index (b) and Spearman rank correlation coefficients for the ranks of fishes in consecutive weeks. The two measures of stability showed a high level of concordance but the Spearman rank correlations were more conservative in detecting cases of stability. Although most dominance structures were linear they were unstable from week to week. Dominant individuals were less likely to experience rank reversals than subordinates. Rank reversals were especially likely among hierarchical neighbors. Dominance hierarchies did not stabilize in the time span of this study. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Dominance hierarchies in normal and conduct-disordered children

Two groups of conduct-disordered children in day treatment and two groups of normal matched controls were observed over eight sessions in a free-play situation. The purpose of the study was to examine whether disturbed children formed dominance hierarchies, and to compare the power relations among disturbed children to those of normal peers. Results indicated that the hospitalized children did form dominance hierarchies, although their hierarchies were not as stable as those of their normal peers. Moreover, an inverse relation was noted between intragroup conflict and the hierarchy's stability. In addition, the pattern of targeting differed between the normal and disturbed youngsters. Conflict among the children in both control groups tended to be concentrated among members of adjacent ranks. The disturbed children, on the other hand, were less discriminating as to their target's rank, exhibited greater intragroup conflict, and lost more frequently in their agonistic encounters.     

Ethnic hierarchies,ethnic prejudice,and social dominance orientation

Previous research in multi‐ethnic societies has shown that people rank, or form hierarchies of, the ethnic groups on the basis of social distance. Based on self‐report data from a community sample (N = 150 non‐psychology students), this study examined (1) the correspondence of ratings and rankings of six ethnic target groups among various subgroups of participants (Swedish and immigrant men and women), and (2) the relationship of inclination to ethnic ranking with ethnic prejudice and social dominance orientation. In accord with our hypotheses, the results disclosed that (1) irrespective of gender and ethnic origin, the various subgroups of participants ranked and formed similar hierarchies of the six ethnic target groups, and (2) people's inclination to ethnic ranking showed significant correlations with their ethnic prejudice as well as social dominance orientation. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Effect of the Sexual Composition of a Group on Discrimination Against Women and Sex-Role Attitudes

This study examined discrimination against women and endorsement of sex-role attitudes as a function of sex composition of group and sex of subject. Undergraduates (116 female and 55 male) were placed in mixed-sex or all-women groups and administered a modification of the journal articles used by Goldberg (1968) and a Sex-Role Attitude Questionnaire developed by the author. Both females and males in the mixed-sex groups evaluated the female-authored articles less favorably than the identical male-authored articles. In contrast, subjects in the all-women groups did not show sex discrimination in their evaluations. Sex-typed appropriateness of the article topics was not an important variable mediating the devaluation of the female-authored articles. Female subjects in mixed-sex groups endorsed more profeminist ideas on the Sex-Role Attitude Questionnaire than did male subjects, and there was a nonsignificant trend for women in the all-women groups after reading female-authored articles to endorse more profeminist ideas than did the women in the mixed-sex groups or in the all-women groups after reading male-authored articles. Results suggest that participation in an all-women's group may elicit a more positive image of other women and contribute to more egalitarian perceptions and behaviors.     

“Cooks are Like Gods”: Hierarchies in Methamphetamine-Producing Groups

This article uses findings from a qualitative study of female methamphetamine users, dealers, and producers in Missouri and Arkansas. Using in-depth interviews with 31 incarcerated women, the study explores their experiences with methamphetamine, focusing on the experiences of 18 methamphetamine producers, or “cooks.” Through their experiences, this study provides an insight into the hierarchies that exist within methamphetamine-producing groups. The hierarchy moves from “simple users” at the bottom, to “dope ho's,” “shoppers,” “gas men/juicers,” and “cooks” at the top of the methamphetamine hierarchy. Understanding the hierarchy within methamphetamine-producing groups can aid us in understanding how new members are added to the group, existing members leave, and new groups form from the existing group. In-group mobility is also examined with regard to group solidarity and reintegration post confinement. Because all of the participants in this study were women the interaction between status and gender within the methamphetamine-producing group is also discussed.     

Dominance Hierarchies and Health: Constructing Personal Zones of Spiritual Power and Healing in Modern Medicine

Ethological studies of animals in groups and sociobiology indicate that hierarchies of dominance amongst some species ensure the survival of the group. When transferred to human groups, dominance hierarchies suggest a crucial role played by recasting the scope of such hierarchies of dominant and subordinate members to included “hyper-dominant beings.” A recognition of such beings as even more dominant than the socially dominant members of a hierarchy facilitates the empowerment of the socially subordinate members. Religious belief and practice works to establish such hyper-dominant beings (“gods,” “goddesses,” and so forth) as superior members of human groups. Doing so is a means of ensuring the survival of the species and, thus, enhancing healing and human health. The “doctor–patient” relationship is examined from such a point of view, with an emphasis on whether the hierarchy created by the relationship allows consideration of alternative and complementary forms of medical treatment.     

Intergroup consensus/disagreement in support of group-based hierarchy: an examination of socio-structural and psycho-cultural factors

A meta-analysis examined the extent to which socio-structural and psycho-cultural characteristics of societies correspond with how much gender and ethnic/racial groups differ on their support of group-based hierarchy. Robustly, women opposed group-based hierarchy more than men did, and members of lower power ethnic/racial groups opposed group-based hierarchy more than members of higher power ethnic/racial groups did. As predicted by social dominance theory, gender differences were larger, more stable, and less variable from sample to sample than differences between ethnic/racial groups. Subordinate gender and ethnic/racial group members disagreed more with dominants in their views of group-based hierarchy in societies that can be considered more liberal and modern (e.g., emphasizing individualism and change from traditions), as well as in societies that enjoyed greater gender equality. The relations between gender and ethnic/racial groups are discussed, and implications are developed for social dominance theory, social role theory, biosocial theory, social identity theory, system justification theory, realistic group conflict theory, and relative deprivation theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved).     

Inverse gender gap in Germany: social dominance orientation among men and women

Across cultures studies show that men score higher on social dominance orientation than women. This gender gap is considered invariant, but conflicting explanations are discussed: Some authors refer to evolutionary psychology and perceive the gender gap to be driven by sociobiological factors. Other authors argue that social roles or gender-stereotypical self-construals encouraged by intergroup comparisons are responsible for attitudinal gender difference. In Study 1 we analyzed sex differences in social dominance orientation in three German probability surveys (each n > 2300). Unexpectedly, the analyses yielded an inverse gender gap with higher values for social dominance orientation in women than in men. Interactions with age, education, political conservatism, and perceived inequity indicated that the inverse gender gap can be mainly attributed to older, conservative, (and less educated) respondents, and those who feel they get their deserved share. In Study 2 we replicated the well-known gender gap with men scoring higher than women in social dominance orientation among German students. Results are interpreted on the basis of biocultural interaction, which integrates the sociobiological, social role, and self-construal perspectives. Our unusual findings seem to reflect a struggle for status by members of low-status groups who consider group-based hierarchy the most promising option to improve their status. While younger women take advantage of a relational, feminine self-construal that leads to lower social dominance orientation in young women than in young men, older women are supposed to profit from an agentic self-construal that results in stronger social dominance orientation values. Specific characteristics of the culture in Germany seem to promote this strategy. Here, we discuss the female ideal of the national socialist period and the agentic female social role in the post-war era necessitated by the absence of men.     

An Experimental Study of Faculty Advising

This study examined the effect on a group of college freshmen of releasing faculty members from part of their teaching assignment to devote more time to academic advising. 60 men and 60 women were randomly selected from the Macalester College freshman class and were randomly assigned to 6 faculty members, each of whom was released from 1 of the 3 courses he would ordinarily have taught. The remaining 400 freshmen, whose faculty advisers had a full teaching load, were the control group. Data indicated that the students in the experimental group were more likely to discuss course planning, career planning, and study problems with their advisers. There was a slightly higher retention rate among women in the experimental group, and there were significant differences on two scales of the College and University Environment Scales between experimental and control group women. No differences were found between the 2 groups in grade-point average.     

A multivariate analysis of social dominance in children

The social dominance behavior of dyads of unacquainted, same-sex 31/2 year-olds was observed in a familiar laboratory playroom under two conditions: A free play situation and a situation where candy was introduced. In each of the two conditions, a principal components analysis was used to explore two issues: the usefulness of the multivariate approach in devising a definition of dominance, and the cross-situational stability of the construct. In the free play session, the first principal component that emerged was consistent with a theoretical definition of dominance. This picture was disrupted by the introduction of candy in the second condition. However, a high correlation was found between the dominance hierarchies established in each situation. It was concluded that the multivariate analysis is a useful method for the study of dominance. The generalizability of social dominance across settings was discussed as a possible explanation for the high cross-situational stability.     

Agonistic rank,aggression, social context,and testosterone in male pigtail monkeys

Two groups of pigtail monkeys were merged, a third was formed, and individual males were introduced into a group in a series of experiments examining the effects of social context upon agonistic rank, aggressive expression, and testosterone levels. In the first experiment, two heterosexual groups, containing adult males unfamiliar to the other group, were merged. The two groups fought, and the smaller group was defeated. The alpha and beta males of the defeated group were singled out for repeated attack and both showed significant drops in circulating levels of testosterone. Both males were removed from the group during the first day, but testosterone levels did not recover to baseline levels for several days. The alpha male of the victorious group, on the other hand, showed a significant rise in testosterone, which was apparent only on the day following the merger. In order to study the influence of previous social familiarity on male reception into a group, another group was formed by removing males from the victorious group and placing them in a separate enclosure. The males in the new group established a dominance hierarchy unrelated to their previous social ranks with one another. Three months later, each of the six adult males remaining in the parent group was individually introduced into the new group for one day or less. Each of the males introduced into the new group accepted a social position at the lower end of the dominance hierarchy without regard to his previous rank relationships with the host males when they were all in the parent group. Even the alpha and beta males of the parent group were relegated to low rank positions in the new group, despite having ranked over each of the host males since birth. In contrast to the aggression directed at the unfamiliar males in the first experiment, a minimum of aggression was directed to the familiar males introduced into the new group in the second experiment. Although the males introduced accepted low social ranks, it appeared that each was readily integrated into the group with a minimum of aggressive interaction during the time he was scheduled to remain in the group. There were no significant changes in circulating levels of testosterone in any of the males during the introductions of familiar males to one another.     

Getting a word in group-wise: Effects of racial diversity on gender dynamics

In three studies, we examined the effects of racial diversity on gender dynamics in small mixed-sex groups. In all-White groups in Study 1, White men spoke significantly more than White women and were rated as more persuasive; however, in racially-diverse groups, White women and White men spent equal amounts of time speaking and were rated as equally persuasive. Video clips of the group members were rated for confidence and anxiety in Study 2, and Study 3 explored more directly how group composition shapes individuals' perceptual and cognitive tendencies. Members of diverse groups were perceived as more anxious than members of all-White groups, and White women were perceived as more anxious than White men. However, White women in diverse groups showed increasing confidence over time. These results suggest that racial diversity has benefits beyond just racial inclusion: it may also promote greater gender equality.     

Sex differences in interaction style as a product of perceived sex differences in competence

Males' and females' interaction styles were observed while they worked in four-person, mixed-sex groups on a discussion task. In some groups, members were only given information about each others' names and gender. In this circumstance, men were perceived by themselves and other group members to be higher in competence than women. Further, men engaged in a greater amount of active task behavior than women (e.g., giving information, giving opinions), and women exhibited a greater amount of positive social behavior than men (e.g., agreeing, acting friendly). In other groups, members' competency-based status was manipulated by providing false feedback that they were high or low relative to their group in intellectual and moral aptitude. High status members were then perceived to be more competent than low status ones and, further, high status individuals engaged in more active task and less positive social behavior than low status ones. In this condition, no sex differences were obtained on perceived competence or on active task or positive social behavior. Overall, these findings support the idea that the gender differences obtained in interaction when status was not specified were partially a function of group members' belief that the sexes differ in competence. Direct information concerning members' intellectual and moral competence apparently blocked the perceived gender-to-competence link, and status alone affected perceived competence and interaction style.     

Measures of change in token-economy programs

Thirty-nine patients, mostly schizophrenics, on a token-economy ward were available to attend up to 30 occupational therapy (OT) sessions divided into 5 reinforcement conditions: free, patients paid, free, patients were paid, free. Four groups of patients were identified according to the condition and session in which they first responded. Group 1 patients began to attend without reinforcement by the third free session. Group 2 patients who began to attend by the second session in the second free condition were less sensitive to rewards than Group 1 members but possibly modeled their behavior after Group 1. The Group 3 members began to attend when given token reinforcers. Group 4 members never emitted the required response. Inadequacies of the grouped-data statistics used by previous researchers in evaluating token economy programs are discussed and it is suggested that in evaluation procedures patients should be separated into groups and the responses from each group be presented in cumulative curves.     

Life satisfaction and identity structure in late middle-aged men and women

A total of 32 retirement-age subjects (17 men and 15 women) provided information about their lives by rating each of their identities in terms of a list of self-generated features. They also rank-ordered their currently enacted identities in terms of time spent in each and completed a life-satisfaction questionnaire. The Identities X Features matrices were analyzed by algorithms that generated a hierarchical model of identity structure for each subject based on feature ratings. The hierarchical levels of identities were combined with time-spent rankings to obtain an index of personal style, a measure that reflected the unique organization of identities for each subject. Personal style indices were then correlated with life-satisfaction scores. Results confirmed the prediction that life satisfaction in this age group is a function of the amount of time spent in identities that give expression to multiple aspects of the self.     

The effectiveness of men and women in problem-solving groups as a function of group gender composition

Previous research suggests that the fewer women in a group, the less likely their ideas will be considered. The present study was designed to test the effect of gender composition on women's influence. Thirty groups were asked to solve two problems, first as individuals, then as groups. Composition and gender of the subject receiving a helpful clue were varied. Subjects rated the second task and members of the group, and a Bales Interaction Analysis was conducted. Results indicated that men were more influential than women only when in the minority, that women had smaller proportions of leadership acts than men, and that some stereotyped attitudes existed. Results were discussed in terms of previous findings, and suggestions for future research were made.     

Membership in a Devalued Social Group and Emotional Well-Being: Developing a Model of Personal Self-Esteem,Collective Self-Esteem,and Group Socialization

We proposed and tested a theoretical model that links membership in a devalued social group to emotional health. People who identify with devalued social groups (e.g., ethnic minorities, gay men/lesbians, bisexuals, women) may be at increased risk for distress via 3 different pathways. First, some members of devalued groups may internalize negative stereotypes about their group, which negatively impact personal self-esteem. Second, being devalued simply on the basis of one's group membership could lead to emotional distress independent of one's own personal self-esteem. Third, some members of devalued groups may be socialized to develop attitudes and behaviors that increase their risk for emotional distress. Data were collected from a sample of White, middle-to-upper-class undergraduate women and men with respect to personal self-esteem, collective self-esteem on the basis of their gender group, attitudes and behaviors associated with female socialization, and emotional distress. Results supported the direct effect of each pathway in predicting concurrent depression and partially supported the prediction of concurrent anxiety. Each pathway fully accounted for women's greater levels of depression relative to men's. Implications for the study of devalued groups are discussed.     

Response variations to Stroop color-word stimuli

Reaction times (RTs) and net interference measures were obtained for 64 Stroop color-word stimuli from 8 common colors. Subjects were 64 college students, 32 of each sex. The incongruous stimulus was designated as either the ink interpretation different from the word or the word interpretation different from the ink. Consistently large variations within Stroop stimuli and Word x Ink interactions were found. Complex qualitative and quantitative differences were revealed between sexes. Females had faster RTs, but showed no significant superiority in measured net interference. The derived rank orders of net interference between sexes were correlated when using the ink, but not when using the word. Neither word nor ink were related in ranking RTs. For net interference, however, derived RTs were highly related for women using the ink interpretation, but not when using the word; they were unrelated for men using either interpretation. Two interrference types were highly correlated for women, but not for men. An additional experiment with a color-blind group cast an interesting light on the issue. Our Stroop data, rank ordered by sex for each measure, may assist viable theory constructions, including the context-dependent interaction hypothesis.     

The fluency of social hierarchy: the ease with which hierarchical relationships are seen, remembered, learned, and liked

We tested the hypothesis that social hierarchies are fluent social stimuli; that is, they are processed more easily and therefore liked better than less hierarchical stimuli. In Study 1, pairs of people in a hierarchy based on facial dominance were identified faster than pairs of people equal in their facial dominance. In Study 2, a diagram representing hierarchy was memorized more quickly than a diagram representing equality or a comparison diagram. This faster processing led the hierarchy diagram to be liked more than the equality diagram. In Study 3, participants were best able to learn a set of relationships that represented hierarchy (asymmetry of power)--compared to relationships in which there was asymmetry of friendliness, or compared to relationships in which there was symmetry--and this processing ease led them to like the hierarchy the most. In Study 4, participants found it easier to make decisions about a company that was more hierarchical and thus thought the hierarchical organization had more positive qualities. In Study 5, familiarity as a basis for the fluency of hierarchy was demonstrated by showing greater fluency for male than female hierarchies. This study also showed that when social relationships are difficult to learn, people's preference for hierarchy increases. Taken together, these results suggest one reason people might like hierarchies--hierarchies are easy to process. This fluency for social hierarchies might contribute to the construction and maintenance of hierarchies.