<Literal>flankr</Literal>: An R package implementing computational models of attentional selectivity

The Eriksen flanker task (Eriksen and Eriksen, Perception & Psychophysics, 16, 143–149, 1974) is a classic test in cognitive psychology of visual selective attention. Two recent computational models have formalised the dynamics of the apparent increasing attentional selectivity during stimulus processing, but with very different theoretical underpinnings: The shrinking spotlight (SSP) model (White et al., Cognitive Psychology, 210–238, 2011) assumes attentional selectivity improves in a gradual, continuous manner; the dual stage two phase (DSTP) model (Hübner et al., Psychological Review, 759–784, 2010) assumes attentional selectivity changes from a low- to a high-mode of selectivity at a discrete time-point. This paper presents an R package—flankr—that instantiates both computational models. flankr allows the user to simulate data from both models, and to fit each model to human data. flankr provides statistics of the goodness-of-fit to human data, allowing users to engage in competitive model comparison of the DSTP and the SSP models on their own data. It is hoped that the utility of flankr lies in allowing more researchers to engage in the important issue of the dynamics of attentional selectivity.     

Fixed- and random-effects meta-analytic structural equation modeling: Examples and analyses in R

Meta-analytic structural equation modeling (MASEM) combines the ideas of meta-analysis and structural equation modeling for the purpose of synthesizing correlation or covariance matrices and fitting structural equation models on the pooled correlation or covariance matrix. Cheung and Chan (Psychological Methods 10:40–64, 2005b, Structural Equation Modeling 16:28–53, 2009) proposed a two-stage structural equation modeling (TSSEM) approach to conducting MASEM that was based on a fixed-effects model by assuming that all studies have the same population correlation or covariance matrices. The main objective of this article is to extend the TSSEM approach to a random-effects model by the inclusion of study-specific random effects. Another objective is to demonstrate the procedures with two examples using the metaSEM package implemented in the R statistical environment. Issues related to and future directions for MASEM are discussed.     

Are parenting interventions effective in improving the relationship between mothers and their preterm infants?

Aim

To systematically review the efficacy of parenting interventions in improving the quality of the relationship between mothers and preterm infants.

Method

Randomized or quasi-randomized controlled trials (RCT) of parenting interventions for mothers of preterm infants where mother–infant relationship quality outcomes were reported. Databases searched: The Cochrane Library, PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO and Web of Science.

Results

Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria, 14 with strong methodological quality. Eight parenting interventions were found to improve the quality of the mother–preterm infant relationship.

Conclusions

Heterogeneity of the interventions calls for an integrated new parenting program focusing on cue-based, responsive care from the mother to her preterm infant to improve the quality of the relationship for these mother–preterm infant dyads.     

Maternal Behavior Modifications during Pretense and Their Long-Term Effects on Toddlers’ Understanding of Pretense

Recent studies indicate the need to investigate the sources of toddlers’ understanding of another person's pretense. The present study is a cultural and longitudinal extension of the work of Lillard and Witherington (2004 Lillard, A. S. & Witherington, D. C. (2004). Mothers’ behavior modifications during pretense and their possible signal value for toddlers. Developmental Psychology, 40, 95–113. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.1.95[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), who claimed that mothers modify their behaviors during pretense and that the some of these behavior modifications help their toddlers understand maternal pretense. Experiment 1 investigated whether mothers would change their behaviors during pretense with a sample of 31 Japanese mother–infant pairs. Experiment 2, with a subsample of 20 mother–child pairs who had participated in Experiment 1, examined whether the maternal behavior modifications at 18 months predicted their toddlers’ understanding of pretense at 24 months. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that Japanese mothers smiled more frequently, gazed at their toddlers longer, used sound effects more frequently, and engaged in more frequent snack-related actions in a “pretense condition” than in a “real condition.” In addition, some of these behaviors were significantly related to their toddlers’ apparent understanding of pretense. Experiment 2 showed that both the frequency of maternal smiles and the number of sound effects in the pretense condition at 18 months predicted toddlers’ understanding of the pretense enacted by a strange adult at 24 months. This research indicates the impact of maternal behavior modifications during pretense on the development of symbolic thought in the 2nd year of life.     

Explanatory exclusion and mental explanation

Jaegwon Kim once refrained from excluding distinct mental causes of effects that depend upon the sufficient physical cause of the effect (Kim, 1984 Kim, J. (1984). "Epiphenomenal and Supervenient Causation", Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 9, p. 257–270.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). At that time, Kim also refrained from excluding distinct mental explanations of effects that depend upon complete physical explanations of the effect (Kim, 1988 Kim, J. (1988). Explanatory realism, causal realism, and explanatory exclusion. Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 12, 225–239.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 1989 Kim, J. (1989). Mechanism, purpose, and explanatory exclusion. Philosophical Perspectives, 3, 77–108.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). More recently, he has excluded distinct mental causes of effects that depend upon the sufficient cause of the effect, since the physical cause is individually sufficient for the effect (Kim, 2005 Kim, J. (2005). Physicalism, or something near enough. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [Google Scholar]). But there has been, to this point, no parallel shift in the explanatory realm, such that distinct mental explanations of effects that depend upon complete physical explanations of the effect are excluded since the physical explanation is objectively complete. In this paper I consider, defend, and apply this update to the principle of explanatory exclusion—an update, which, in the final analysis, demonstrates a significant advantage that non-reductive physicalism has over reductive physicalism.     

Mothers’ neural responses to infant faces are associated with activation of the maternal care system and observed intrusiveness with their own child

Certain infant facial characteristics, referred to as baby schema, are thought to automatically trigger parenting behavior and affective orientation toward infants. Electroencephalography (EEG) is well suited to assessing the intuitive nature and temporal dynamics of parenting responses, due to its millisecond temporal resolution. Little is known, however, about the relations between neural processing of infant cues and actual parenting behavior in a naturalistic setting. In the present study we examined the event-related potentials (ERPs) of mothers (N = 33) watching infant faces of varying attractiveness, in relation to activation of the maternal care system and the mothers’ observed parenting behavior (sensitivity, nonintrusiveness) with their own child (2–6 years old). The results revealed that, irrespective of the cuteness of the infant face, mothers’ neural processing of infant faces involved both early P1 and P2 components (related to orienting/detecting processes) and late positive potentials (LPPs; related to more controlled cognitive evaluation/attentional engagement). Increased early detection and processing of infant faces (reflected by P1 and P2 activity) was related to increased activation of the parental care system. In later stages of face processing, increased attentional engagement with infant faces (as reflected by LPP activity) was associated with more intrusiveness of a mother with her own child during interaction. These findings suggest that individual variations in responses to infant stimuli are associated with individual differences in parental care system activation and parenting quality. Furthermore, the parental care system might be activated relatively automatically, but actual parenting and caregiving behavior requires more conscious control.     

The organization of children's secure base behaviour in two-parent Portuguese families and father's participation in child-related activities

The organization of children's secure base behaviour was studied in two-parent Portuguese families, with 44 father–child and mother–child dyads, children's age was on average 31.91 months. An analysis of Attachment Q-sort (AQS; Waters, 1995 Waters, E. 1995. “Appendix A: Attachment Q-set (version 3.0)”. In Caregiving, cultural, and cognitive perspectives on secure base behavior and working models: New growing points of attachment theory and research Edited by: Waters, E., Vaughn, B. E., Posada, G. and Kondon-Ikemura, K. Monographs of the Society for Research in the Child Development, 60(2–3), 234–246 [Google Scholar]) data revealed no significant differences in security scores for mothers and fathers. Both parents independently responded to a questionnaire about their participation in child-related activities, relative to their spouse's participation in these activities. A traditional division in the Care/Organization tasks and a shared participation in the Play/Leisure activities emerged. Fathers with higher scores for both types of activities tended to have children with higher security scores. Fathers' participation in Play/Leisure activities was associated with children's AQS scores with their mothers. In this sample father's participation is positively associated with the quality of secure base relationships within the family context.     

Coparenting in the Context of Mother–Father–Infant versus Mother–Grandmother–Infant Triangular Interactions in Turkey

In this report, coparenting behaviors during triangular interactions among families raising a 3-month-old infant in Turkey are examined. Given the significant role played by extended family members in Turkish culture, coparenting dynamics were examined as mothers and babies played together with grandmothers, as well as together with fathers. Forty-five families took part, and 42 father–mother–baby and 33 grandmother–mother–baby triangular interactions of approximately 10?min in length were filmed during the Lausanne Trilogue Play. From videotapes of the interactions, individual and mutual coparenting behaviors were evaluated using the Coparenting and Family Rating System: 3 Month Adaptation (CFRS3M). Results indicated that while mothers’ own parenting behavior when in the LTP role of Active Parent (AP) was comparable whether with fathers or grandmothers, their behavior when in the LTP role of third party parent (TPP) was comparatively more engaged while with fathers than while with grandmothers. Fathers were comparatively less engaged when occupying the TPP role than were mothers in the TPP role, while grandmothers showed more flirting and distracting behavior in the TPP role than did either fathers or mothers. These findings are significant in documenting meaningful distinctions in Turkish grandmothers’ as well as in Turkish fathers’ and mothers’ coparenting propensities when engaging in triangular interactions with babies during the LTP.     

‘I still have difficulties feeling like a mother’: The transition to motherhood of preterm infants mothers

Objective: The premature birth of their infant can constitute a sudden interruption of the transition to motherhood that requires a reorganisation of the process. The present study aimed to analyse the experience of the transition to motherhood of preterm infants’ mothers, framing it within Stern’s transition to motherhood theory.

Method: A semi-structured interview was administered to 30 mothers during the recovery of the infant in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. The interview explored the experience of mothers related to pregnancy, the infant’s birth and recovery.

Results: Thematic Analyses evidenced four interrelated themes: disconnection from the child, perception of maternal inadequacy, loss of parental role and temporal suspension. The themes showed that the mothers’ experience of preterm birth not only concerns the traumatic delivery, but is also embedded in the entire process of becoming a mother within an institutional context.

Conclusions: Results were connected to Stern’s theory. Findings revealed difficulties for preterm mothers that could affect the development of the maternal constellation and thus their transition to motherhood. These difficulties may influence the construction of maternal identity, mother’s representation of their child and the bond with their child.     

Should I stay or should I go? Initiation of joint travel in mother–infant dyads of two chimpanzee communities in the wild

It is well established that great apes communicate via intentionally produced, elaborate and flexible gestural means. Yet relatively little is known about the most fundamental steps into this communicative endeavour—communicative exchanges of mother–infant dyads and gestural acquisition; perhaps because the majority of studies concerned captive groups and single communities in the wild only. Here, we report the first systematic, quantitative comparison of communicative interactions of mother–infant dyads in two communities of wild chimpanzees by focusing on a single communicative function: initiation of carries for joint travel. Over 156 days of observation, we recorded 442 actions, 599 cases of intentional gesture production, 51 multi-modal combinations and 80 vocalisations in the Kanyawara community, Kibale National Park, Uganda, and the Taï South community, Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire. Our results showed that (1) mothers and infants differed concerning the signal frequency and modality employed to initiate joint travel, (2) concordance rates of mothers’ gestural production were relatively low within but also between communities, (3) infant communicative development is characterised by a shift from mainly vocal to gestural means, and (4) chimpanzee mothers adjusted their signals to the communicative level of their infants. Since neither genetic channelling nor ontogenetic ritualization explains our results satisfactorily, we propose a revised theory of gestural acquisition, social negotiation, in which gestures are the output of social shaping, shared understanding and mutual construction in real time by both interactants.     

Sensitivity Analysis in Structural Equation Models: Cases and Their Influence

The detection of outliers and influential observations is routine practice in linear regression. Despite ongoing extensions and development of case diagnostics in structural equation models (SEM), their application has received limited attention and understanding in practice. The use of case diagnostics informs analysts of the uncertainty of model estimates under different subsets of the data and highlights unusual and important characteristics of certain cases. We present several measures of case influence applicable in SEM and illustrate their implementation, presentation, and interpretation with two empirical examples: (a) a common factor model on verbal and visual ability (Holzinger &; Swineford, 1939 Holzinger, K. and Swineford, F. 1939. A study in factor analysis: The stability of a bi-factor solution. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago..  [Google Scholar]) and (b) a general structural equation model assessing the effect of industrialization on democracy in a mediating model using country-level data (Bollen, 1989 Bollen, K. A. 1989. Structural equation models with latent variables New York, NY: Wiley.. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Bollen &; Arminger, 1991 Bollen, K. A. and Arminger, G. 1991. Observational residuals in factor analysis and structural equation models. Sociological Methodology, 21: 235–262. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Throughout these examples, three issues are emphasized. First, cases may impact different aspects of results as identified by different measures of influence. Second, the important distinction between outliers and influential cases is highlighted. Third, the concept of good and bad cases is introduced—these are influential cases that improve/worsen overall model fit based on their presence in the sample. We conclude with a discussion on the utility of detecting influential cases in SEM and present recommendations for the use of measures of case influence.     

Longitudinal Multi-Trait-State-Method Model Using Ordinal Data

Multi-trait multi-method (MTMM) models provide a way to assess convergent and discriminant validity when multiple traits are measured by multiple methods. In recent years, longitudinal extensions of MTMM models have been proposed in the structural equation modeling framework to evaluate whether and how the trait as well as method factors change over time. We propose a novel longitudinal ordinal MTMM model that can be used to effectively distinguish volatile “state” processes from “trait” processes that tend to remain stable and invariant over time. The proposed model, termed a longitudinal multi-trait-state-method (LM-TSM) model, combines 3 key modeling components: (a) a measurement model for ordinal data, (b) a vector autoregressive moving average model at the latent level to examine changes in the state as well as the method factors over time, and (c) a second-order factor-analytic model to capture time-invariant traits as shared variances among the state factors across all measurement occasions. Data from the Affective Dynamics and Individual Differences (ADID; Emotions and Dynamic Systems Laboratory, 2010 Emotions and Dynamic Systems Laboratory. (2010). The Affective Dynamics and Individual Differences (ADID) study: Developing non-stationary and network-based methods for modeling the perception and physiology of emotions. . Unpublished manual, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. [Google Scholar]) study was used to illustrate the proposed longitudinal LM-TSM model. Methodological issues associated with fitting the LM-TSM model are discussed.     

Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised Very Short Form: A New Factor Structure's Associations With Parenting Perceptions and Child Language Outcomes

The Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised–Very Short Form (IBQ–R VSF; Putnam, Helbig, Gartstein, Rothbart, &; Leerkes, 2014 Putnam, S. P., Helbig, A. L., Gartstein, M. A., Rothbart, M. K., &; Leerkes, E. (2014). Development and assessment of short and very short forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 445–458. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.841171[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) is a new publicly available measure of infant temperament measuring positive affectivity/surgency (PAS), negative emotionality (NEG), and orienting and regulatory capacity (ORC). Although the initial psychometric properties of the 3-factor model appear promising, it has not been administered to a large and diverse sample and its predictive validity has not been established. This study administered the IBQ–R VSF to a diverse sample of 5,639 mothers of infants aged between 23 and 52 weeks. Confirmatory factor analysis found that the 3-factor solution did not meet the requirement for satisfactory model fit. Exploratory factor analysis found that a 5-factor solution (PAS, NEG, Orienting Capacity, Affiliation/Regulation, and Fear) was statistically and conceptually the most parsimonious. All 5 temperament dimensions were found to relate to both mother- and partner-reported infant closeness, parenting confidence, and parenting satisfaction, and four of the dimensions (PAS, Orienting Capacity, NEG, and Fear) related to the infants' communication development. Some parental differences were also found. Together these findings suggest that the 5-factor IBQ–R VSF is a promising measure of infant temperament and is related to parenting perceptions and child language development.     

On the Model-Based Bootstrap With Missing Data: Obtaining a P-Value for a Test of Exact Fit

Evaluating the fit of a structural equation model via bootstrap requires a transformation of the data so that the null hypothesis holds exactly in the sample. For complete data, such a transformation was proposed by Beran and Srivastava (1985) Beran, R. and Srivastava, M. S. 1985. Bootstrap tests and confidence regions for functions of a covariance matrix. The Annals of Statistics, 13: 95–115. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] for general covariance structure models and applied to structural equation modeling by Bollen and Stine (1992) Bollen, K. A. and Stine, R. A. 1992. Bootstrapping goodness-of-fit measures in structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 21: 205–229. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]. An extension of this transformation to missing data was presented by Enders (2002) Enders, C. K. 2002. Applying the Bollen-Stine bootstrap for goodness-of-fit measures to structural equation models with missing data. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 37: 359–377. [Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], but it is an approximate and not an exact solution, with the degree of approximation unknown. In this article, we provide several approaches to obtaining an exact solution. First, an explicit solution for the special case when the sample covariance matrix within each missing data pattern is invertible is given. Second, 2 iterative algorithms are described for obtaining an exact solution in the general case. We evaluate the rejection rates of the bootstrapped likelihood ratio statistic obtained via the new procedures in a Monte Carlo study. Our main finding is that model-based bootstrap with incomplete data performs quite well across a variety of distributional conditions, missing data mechanisms, and proportions of missing data. We illustrate our new procedures using empirical data on 26 cognitive ability measures in junior high students, published in Holzinger and Swineford (1939) Holzinger, K. J. and Swineford, F. 1939. A study in factor analysis: The stability of a bi-factor solution. Supplementary Educational Monographs, 48: 1–91.  [Google Scholar].     

Attentional focus affects how events are segmented and updated in narrative reading

Readers generate situation models representing described events, but the nature of these representations may differ depending on the reading goals. We assessed whether instructions to pay attention to different situational dimensions affect how individuals structure their situation models (Exp. 1) and how they update these models when situations change (Exp. 2). In Experiment 1, participants read and segmented narrative texts into events. Some readers were oriented to pay specific attention to characters or space. Sentences containing character or spatial-location changes were perceived as event boundaries—particularly if the reader was oriented to characters or space, respectively. In Experiment 2, participants read narratives and responded to recognition probes throughout the texts. Readers who were oriented to the spatial dimension were more likely to update their situation models at spatial changes; all readers tracked the character dimension. The results from both experiments indicated that attention to individual situational dimensions influences how readers segment and update their situation models. More broadly, the results provide evidence for a global situation model updating mechanism that serves to set up new models at important narrative changes.     

Time and again: Intermittent Brief Dynamic Therapy

Abstract

The author notes that in many of the settings in which Brief Therapy takes place that a client may return after the ending for a further series of sessions. Time-limited therapy has placed an emphasis upon the termination phase of the therapy and linked this to the process of individuation and separation. Such an approach, as articulated by Mann (1973 Mann, J. 1973. Time-limited psychotherapy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  [Google Scholar]), which draws conceptually from the work of Winnicott (1965 Winnicott, D. W. 1965. The maturational processes and the facilitating environment, London: Hogarth Press.  [Google Scholar]) and the notion that the infant achieves unit status from the original undifferentiated merger with the mother, is not easily compatible with Intermittent Brief Dynamic Therapy. The work of attachment theorists and Stern (1985 Stern, D. N. 1985. The interpersonal world of the infant, New York: Basic Books.  [Google Scholar]) provide an alternative basis upon which to conceive of the development of the infant. While emphasizing the importance of attending to affects at points of separation and ending, as is evidenced in the work of Della Selva (2004 Della, Selva P. C. 2004. Intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy, London: Karnac.  [Google Scholar]), such a framework is more readily compatible with the development of Intermittent Therapy, and with the realities of the settings in which much brief work takes place. The author also comments upon the flexibility inherent in Winnicott's own practice of brief consultations, and the implications of this for the development of Intermittent Brief Dynamic Therapy. The paper includes a case study that illustrates this debate and which provides evidence for the therapeutic potency of a form of Brief Dynamic Intermittent Therapy where a dynamic focus maintains a structuring pattern to the narrative over a sequence of several periods of Brief Therapy, spread over a number of years.     

A Comparison of Two-Stage Approaches for Fitting Nonlinear Ordinary Differential Equation Models with Mixed Effects

Several approaches exist for estimating the derivatives of observed data for model exploration purposes, including functional data analysis (FDA; Ramsay &; Silverman, 2005 Ramsay, J. O., &; Silverman, B. W. (2005). Functional data analysis (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. [Google Scholar]), generalized local linear approximation (GLLA; Boker, Deboeck, Edler, &; Peel, 2010 Boker, S. M., Deboeck, P. R., Edler, C., &; Peel, P. K. (2010). Generalized local linear approximation of derivatives from time series. In S. Chow, E. Ferrer, &; F. Hsieh (Eds.), Statistical methods for modeling human dynamics: An interdisciplinary dialogue (pp. 161–178). New York, NY: Taylor &; Francis. [Google Scholar]), and generalized orthogonal local derivative approximation (GOLD; Deboeck, 2010 Deboeck, P. R. (2010). Estimating dynamical systms: Derivative estimation hints from Sir Ronald A. Fisher. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 45, 725–745. doi:10.1080/00273171.2010.498294[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). These derivative estimation procedures can be used in a two-stage process to fit mixed effects ordinary differential equation (ODE) models. While the performance and utility of these routines for estimating linear ODEs have been established, they have not yet been evaluated in the context of nonlinear ODEs with mixed effects. We compared properties of the GLLA and GOLD to an FDA-based two-stage approach denoted herein as functional ordinary differential equation with mixed effects (FODEmixed) in a Monte Carlo (MC) study using a nonlinear coupled oscillators model with mixed effects. Simulation results showed that overall, the FODEmixed outperformed both the GLLA and GOLD across all the embedding dimensions considered, but a novel use of a fourth-order GLLA approach combined with very high embedding dimensions yielded estimation results that almost paralleled those from the FODEmixed. We discuss the strengths and limitations of each approach and demonstrate how output from each stage of FODEmixed may be used to inform empirical modeling of young children’s self-regulation.     

Establishing the Measurement Invariance of the Very Short Form of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised for Mothers Who Vary on Race and Poverty Status

We examined the measurement invariance of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised–Very Short Form (IBQR–VSF; Putnam, Helbig, Gartstein, Rothbart, &; Leerkes, 2014 Putnam, S. P., Helbig, A. L., Gartstein, M. A., Rothbart, M. K., &; Leerkes, E. (2014). Development and assessment of Short and Very Short Forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 445–458. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.841171[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) in a sample of 470 racially (185 White, 285 African American) and socioeconomically diverse mothers (158 below federal poverty threshold, 296 above federal poverty threshold) of infants. Using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, we demonstrated configural, full metric, and full scalar invariance demonstrating that the 3-factor structure (negative emotionality, positive affectivity/surgency, orienting/regulatory capacity), pattern of item loadings, and item means were comparable for White and African American mothers, and for poor and not poor mothers. In addition, we demonstrated full error invariance across racial groups and partial error variance invariance across poverty status, demonstrating that item reliability was comparable for White and African American mothers, and both those above and below the poverty line (with the exception of a subset of items). Thus, the IBQR–VSF appears appropriate for use in racially and socioeconomically diverse samples.     

Effects of personality traits and characteristics of child sexual abuse on maternal reactions and support

Objective

This study aimed to examine the relationship between maternal and contextual factors including maternal personality traits, the quality of mother–child relationship, the characteristics of sexual abuse and maternal outcomes: (1) maternal reactions including feelings of anger and responsibility, anger and perceptions of responsibility of the child, and (2) maternal support provided to the child following the disclosure of sexual abuse.