Intimate partner cohesion and military unit cohesion: Different types of interpersonal relationships each uniquely predict soldier well-being

Although research on military populations has found that measures of personal well-being are correlated with both intimate partner cohesion and military unit cohesion, it is not clear how these correlations should be interpreted. Based on Relationship Regulation Theory, it was expected that each type of interpersonal relationship would have independent effects, that each would uniquely predict outcomes, and that effects would remain significant after controlling for person-level traits and experiences, such as trait resilience and exposure to combat. A sample of 273 active-duty military personnel completed self-report measures of cohesion in two types of interpersonal relationships (intimate relationships and military unit relationships), two control variables (trait resilience and combat exposure), and three outcome variables (well-being, negative emotionality, and trauma-related stress). Results indicated that cohesion in the two types of relationships were minimally related to each other, but both correlated with outcome variables. Effects for each type of interpersonal relationship remained significant after controlling for the other type and controlling for trait resilience and combat exposure. The results suggest that the effects of interpersonal cohesion are best understood as reflecting experiences in specific types of relationships rather than general characteristics of people in those relationships.     

Assessment of Depression in Adolescents: Objective and Projective Measures

This study is a multimethod assessment of depressive features in a sample of 60 adolescent inpatients. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between self-report measures of depression and Rorschach variables commonly associated with depression. Patients represented a variety of diagnostic categories in order to determine whether information gathered through assessment instruments was related to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed. [DSM-III], American Psychiatric Association, 1980) diagnoses of depression. Findings indicated that this sample of adolescents was highly defensive and emotionally constricted. There were several significant relationships between self-report measures and Rorschach indicators of depression. However, in general, the Rorschach variables were not strongly related to depression. The self-report measures were more accurate than Rorschach variables in discriminating between depressed and nondepressed subjects.     

Assessment of depression in adolescents: objective and projective measures

This study is a multimethod assessment of depressive features in a sample of 60 adolescent inpatients. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between self-report measures of depression and Rorschach variables commonly associated with depression. Patients represented a variety of diagnostic categories in order to determine whether information gathered through assessment instruments was related to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed. [DSM-III], American Psychiatric Association, 1980) diagnoses of depression. Findings indicated that this sample of adolescents was highly defensive and emotionally constricted. There were several significant relationships between self-report measures and Rorschach indicators of depression. However, in general, the Rorschach variables were not strongly related to depression. The self-report measures were more accurate than Rorschach variables in discriminating between depressed and nondepressed subjects.     

An Empirical Assessment of Salesperson Motivation,Commitment, and Job Outcomes

This study contributes to the efforts to integrate work commitment constructs into the long-dominant expectancy theory framework of salesforce motivation and performance. Responses were gathered from 231 industrial salespeople in order to: 1) provide evidence concerning discriminant and convergent validity of two measures of work commitment and 2) distinguish expectancy and commitment constructs; and investigate the relationships between motivation, commitment, and two important outcomes—effort and performance. The results of the study indicate that conceptual and empirical differences do exist between commitment variables and expectancy-based motivation variables. Job commitment and extrinsic motivation are found to be related to salesperson effort, which in turn is related to salesperson performance.     

Relationships between leader reward and punishment behavior and subordinate attitudes,perceptions, and behaviors: A meta-analytic review of existing and new research

Despite decades of research on the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and employee attitudes, perceptions, and performance, no comprehensive examination of these relationships has been reported in the literature. This paper reports the results of two studies that address this issue. In the first study, data from 20 new samples were gathered on the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and some criterion variables that have not been examined extensively in previous research. In the second study, a meta-analytic review was conducted incorporating both the new and existing research in order to provide estimates of the bivariate relationships between these leader behaviors and a variety of employee criterion variables across 78 studies containing 118 independent samples. Results of regression analyses designed to control for the effects of the other leader behaviors showed that: (a) the relationships between leader reward and punishment behaviors and employee attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors were more functional when the rewards or punishments were administered contingently than when they were administered non-contingently, and (b) these leader reward and punishment behaviors were strongly related to two variables (employees’ perceptions of justice and role ambiguity) that were expected to be key mediators of the relationships between these leader behaviors and the employee criterion variables. In addition, meta-analytic evidence from longitudinal studies suggested that the same leader behavior can be a cause of some employee criterion variables, and a consequence of others. Implications of these findings for future research in the area are discussed.     

Sex role development as a function of college experiences

The purpose was to evaluate the effect of college experiences on androgyny. One hundred and thirty-nine freshman and 57 senior women completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) as well as measures to assess precollege variables, including a biographical questionnaire, a life experience survey, a measure of parental identification, and parental sex role inventories. In addition, seniors completed measures that assessed college experiences. Almost all of the scales on the two precollege questionnaires that measured parental variables were found related to student's sex role. Consequently, all remaining relationships with sex role were examined with and without controlling for these parental scales. None of the variables that measured college experiences were found to be significantly related to sex role. The results did not support the hypothesis that seniors would assume a more masculine sex role than freshmen. However, the seniors did obtain significantly lower scores than freshmen on the BSRI Femininity scale.     

Computer-assisted versus paper-and-pencil administration of questionnaires

In a field experiment using 95 employees, the results of computer-assisted versus paper-and-pencil administration of questionnaires during computer training were compared. Unlike past research, the computer mode of administration was made as similar as possible, in format, to the paper mode. No differences in means or reliabilities were found between any variables across the two conditions. However, when the correlations were examined, different patterns of relationships were found across the two conditions. Specifically, subjective or affective measures (software efficacy, playfulness, and training reaction) were more highly related when the measures were gathered by computer as opposed to paper-and-pencil. The relationships between subjective measures and more objective or factual measures (experience, performance, training transfer) were not affected. Thus, it appears that, while differences in mode of administration may not be reflected in differences in means, there are differences in nomological validity.     

The measurement of role variables: Exploratory examination of a new approach

New measures of role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload were developed for a group of attorneys located in the headquarters of a large energy company. These measures were based upon a recently developed theory of behavior in organizations, which focuses on specific job products as an essential component of organizational roles. The measures have an attractive potential for applied efforts (e.g., training) to rectify or diminish role stress problems. Forty respondents completed the product-based measures in addition to commonly used measures of the role variables and a number of outcome measures. Results indicated that (1) the product-based role measures displayed patterns of relationships with outcomes which were quite similar to the patterns for commonly used role measures, and (2) the product-based measures of role variables compared favorably to commonly used measures in terms of frequency of relationships to outcome variables and appeared to be somewhat superior in terms of method variance problems.     

A meta‐analysis of the predictors and consequences of organization‐based self‐esteem

Organization‐based self‐esteem (OBSE), which represents employees' beliefs about their own value and competence as organizational members, has attracted much recent research attention. In the current paper, we identified several theoretically based predictors and consequences of OBSE. We then conducted a meta‐analysis examining the relationships between OBSE and these variables. Results indicated that several hypothesized predictors, including the work environment and employee dispositions, were related to OBSE. Furthermore, OBSE was related to several hypothesized outcome variables including job satisfaction, organizational commitment, employee health, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviour. As expected, OBSE generally yielded stronger relationships with work‐related variables than did general self‐esteem and we found evidence that OBSE mediated the relationships between general self‐esteem and work‐related criteria.     

Individual difference variables in close relationships: a contextual model of marriage as an integrative framework

We examined and refined a contextual model of marriage (Bradbury & Fincham, 1987) in order to organize the associations between individual difference variables and satisfaction in close relationships. Seventy-eight spouses were administered instruments assessing marital satisfaction and individual differences in femininity, masculinity, dysfunctional relationship beliefs, and causal and responsibility attributions for marital difficulties. As predicted, higher levels of satisfaction were related to femininity and to partner's femininity, and lower levels of satisfaction were related to dysfunctional beliefs and less benign attributions. More important, two competing hypotheses relating to the contextual model were tested. A model in which the transitory, or proximal, context (e.g., responsibility attributions for specific relationship events) mediates the relation between the stable, or distal, context (e.g., general beliefs about relationships) and satisfaction was refuted. Support was obtained, however, for a model in which proximal and distal variables both account for unique variance in marital satisfaction. The usefulness of distinguishing between transitory and stable variables and the implications of the contextual model for organizing research on close relationships are discussed.     

Initial Validation of Measures of Sanctification in Same‐Sex Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior

Researchers have created reliable and valid scales of the sanctification of romantic relationships and sexual behavior of opposite‐sex couples. The goal of the present study is to assess the reliability and validity of sanctification measures within same‐sex romantic relationships. Measures of sanctification and relationship adjustment were given to 256 persons in same‐sex romantic relationships living in the United States. Both sanctification measures had Cronbach alpha values above 0.80. Sanctification related to relationship adjustment in expected ways. Controlling for demographic variables, general religiosity, and self‐perceived spirituality, the sanctification of a same‐sex romantic relationship was associated with greater investment in the partnership, emotional intimacy toward one's partner, and relationship satisfaction. Sanctifying same‐sex sexual behavior related to more frequent sex and more positive emotions toward sex, after controlling for demographic variables, general religiosity, and perceived spirituality. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Stagnation and generativity: structure, validity, and differential relationships with adaptive and maladaptive personality

Erikson's concepts of stagnation and generativity were investigated in two studies. Study 1 (N=457) yields two important results. First, it revealed that a model in which stagnation and generativity load on a separate dimension showed a significantly better fit to the data than a one-dimensional model. Second, the stagnation and generativity measures were valid predictors of parental behavior. In Study 2 (N=191), the relationships between stagnation and generativity and the dimensions underlying comprehensive measures of personality were investigated. It was found that stagnation was strongly related to Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to Experience, whereas generativity bore strong relationships with Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience. In the discussion, stagnation is distinguished from several related variables and a profile of the stagnant individual is constructed and compared with the generative individual. Finally, the interaction between stagnation and generativity in producing specific outcomes is discussed.     

Distinguishing among nondirect forms of aggression

This study explored the relationships and differences among two measures of indirect aggression [Bjorkqvist et al., 1994; Richardson and Green, 1997] and one of relational aggression [Crick and Grotpeter, 1995]. Over 300 students (mean age 22.8 years; 61.5% female) from two colleges in the Southeastern United States completed measures of indirect and relational aggression and related constructs (e.g., empathy, anger expression, direct aggression). Although there were subtle differences among the three measures with regard to their relationships with associated variables, overall the patterns of relationships were similar as well as distinct from the pattern for direct aggression. Factor analysis of scores for measures of aggression revealed that the indirect and relational measures composed a single factor of nondirect aggression, separate from direct aggression. Further factor analysis of all unique items from the nondirect scales found the overall construct of nondirect aggression to comprise six distinct factors. Implications for applications and further research are discussed.     

Exploring the relationship between two forms of narcissism and competitiveness

This study investigated the theoretical and empirical links between narcissism and competitiveness by focusing on the multifaceted features of these individual difference variables. The present study compared measures of overt narcissism (Narcissistic Personality Inventory, NPI; Raskin & Terry, 1988) and covert narcissism (Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale, HSNS; Hendin & Cheek, 1997) with measures of competitiveness (Revised Competitiveness Index, CI-R; Houston, Harris, McIntire, & Francis, 2002) and hypercompetitiveness (Hypercompetitive Attitude Scale, HCS; Ryckman, Hammer, Kaczor, & Gold, 1990). Based on a sample of 324 undergraduates, positive relationships were found between overt narcissism and general competitiveness and hypercompetitiveness. However, covert narcissism was negatively related to general competitiveness but positively related to hypercompetitiveness. The findings highlight the similarities and distinctions between different forms of narcissism and competitiveness and provide a broader framework for understanding the relationship between narcissism and competitiveness. Implications for the interpersonal manifestation of these different forms are discussed.     

Social and Cognitive Factors Affecting the Own-Race Bias in Whites

This study investigated factors associated with the commonly found own-race bias (ORB) in face recognition. We utilized several measures of general face-recognition memory, visual perception and memory, general cognitive functioning, racial attitudes, and cross-race experience in an attempt to distinguish those individuals more likely to demonstrate the effect. White respondents (N = 129) were presented two facial-recognition tests (immediate and delayed) involving Black and White faces of both genders. The resulting ORB stemmed largely from a bias to respond "seen before" to Black faces, and produced an effect that was reliable across a 2-day period. An own-sex bias in accuracy was also found. The Benton Facial Recognition test and the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, 2 central measures of visual memory, were related to ability to recognize White faces. Self-reported amount of recent cross-race experiences was also correlated with overall accuracy on Black and White faces.     

Forgiveness and mental health variables: Interpreting the relationship using an adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping

The present paper uses an adaptational-continuum model of personality, based on Ferguson’s (2001) health psychology model integrating Eysenck personality factors and coping style, to provide a context for examining the relationship between forgiveness and mental health. Three hundred and twenty respondents completed measures of personality, coping style, forgiveness (forgiveness of self, others, likelihood, presence of positive forgiveness, absence of negative forgiveness), general health, stress, positive and negative affect and life satisfaction. Among respondents, all measures of forgiveness, bar one, load negatively on a neuroticism-coping factor. The remaining measure of forgiveness (presence of positive forgiveness) loaded on an extraversion-coping factor. The relationship of the neuroticism-coping-forgiveness factor was associated with poorer mental health, suggesting forgiveness is associated with better mental health within the context of this personality-coping factor. Significant positive relationships were found between the extraversion-coping-forgiveness factor and two measures of positive mental health outcomes (positive affect and life satisfaction) suggesting forgiveness is associated with some aspects of mental health within the context of this personality-coping factor. The present findings suggest that forgiveness, or failure to forgive, can be conceptualised within an adaptational-continuum model of personality.     

The Relationship between Spatial and Communicative Egocentrism in Children and Young and Old Adults

Four age groups of 112 subjects were tested on measures of spatial and communicative egocentrism. Contrary to Piaget's assumption that the variables within his system develop in a unidirectional and irreversible fashion, a curvilinear pattern of development was found. Moreover, the relationship between the two egocentrism measures was found to be significant for only the grade 6 and college-aged samples. Nonsignificant relationships existed for the grade 2 and elderly groups. The findings are discussed in terms of neurological disintegration in the elderly.     

Perceived size and perceived distance in stereoscopic vision and an analysis of their causal relations

Effects of visual angle and convergence upon the perceived sizes and perceived distances of a familiar object (playing card) and a nonrepresentational object (blank white card) were investigated by means of a projector stereoscope with polarizing filters. The results obtained with six Ss indicated that size estimates increased nearly proportionally as the visual angle increased and decreased nearly linearly as the convergence increased. Distance estimates decreased nearly linearly as either the visual angle or the convergence increased. The ratio of the size estimate to the distance estimate for a given visual angle was almost constant irrespective of convergence. In this sense, the size-distance invariance hypothesis held. No clear effect of familiarity was found. Partial correlations were used to discriminate direct and indirect causal relationships between the stimulus variables and perceptual estimates. Both perceived size and perceived distance were found to be determined directly by the two stimulus variables, but to be mutually related only indirectly.     

The justice and injustice of life events

An experiment employing a sample (N=280) of undergraduates from an urban university was designed to test the general hypothesis that the perception of justice and injustice in life events depends upon the relationship between two variables that are part of the stimulus situation: the valence of the person being observed (good or bad), and the valence of the outcome experienced by that person (positive or negative). The findings from both qualitative (analysis of spontaneous comments) and quantitative scale ratings supported the prediction that justice and injustice perceptions depend respectively on whether the signs of the person–outcome valences are the same or different. Two perceptual biases were revealed by the analysis. The first was a positive outcome bias: respondents rated as more just outcomes that were positive regardless of the goodness or badness of the person in the life event. The second was a justice bias: respondents in both measures found the just life events to be more just than unjust life events to be unjust. Finally the more religious respondents perceived the life events as more just regardless of the patterns of person–outcome valences than did the less religious, suggesting a third, religiosity bias. A number of theoretical implications and questions for future research were discussed, including the quantification of the hypothesis and its cross-cultural generality.     

On the Construct Validity of Integrity Tests: Individual and Situational Factors as Predictors of Test Performance

Although integrity tests are widely applied in screening job applicants, there is a need for research for examining the construct validity of these tests. In the present study, a theoretical model examining the causes of destructive behavior in organizational settings was used to develop background data measures of individual and situational variables that might be related to integrity test scores. Subsequently, 692 undergraduates were asked to complete these background data scales along with (a) two overt integrity tests – the Reid Report and the Personnel Selection Inventory, and (b) two personality‐based measures – the delinquency and socialization scales of the California Psychological Inventory. When scores of these measures were correlated with and regressed on the background data scales, it was found that relevant individual variables, such as narcissism and power motives, and relevant situational variables, such as alienation and exposure to negative peer groups, were related to scores on both types of integrity tests. However, a stronger pattern of validity evidence was obtained for the personality‐based measures and, in all cases, situational variables were found to be better predictors than individual variables. The implications of these findings for the validity of inferences drawn from overt and personality‐based integrity tests are discussed.