The impact of cognitive test anxiety on text comprehension and recall in the absence of external evaluative pressure

Two studies examined the effects of cognitive test anxiety on students' memory, comprehension, and understanding of expository text passages in situations without externally‐imposed evaluative pressure. The results gathered through structural equations modelling demonstrated a significant impact of cognitive test anxiety on performance in conditions with and without external evaluative pressure. The impact of cognitive test anxiety was stronger in those conditions with external evaluative pressure. The results are interpreted to support processing models of test anxiety that propose test anxiety interferes with learning through deficiencies in encoding, organization, and storage in addition to the classic interpretation of retrieval failures. In addition, the data provide support for additive models of test anxiety that address both stable and situational factors in the overall impact of cognitive test anxiety on performance. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation,self-awareness,and task performance

Two contradictory hypotheses regarding the effect of self-attention or self-awareness on task performance are considered. Recent research on test anxiety indicates that self-awareness interferes with task performance by decreasing the proportion of attention paid to the task. Wicklund and Duval's (1971) theory of objective self-awareness predicts the opposite: that self-awareness will induce a person to try harder and to perform at a higher level. Experimental evidence indicates that both hypotheses are correct, each at a different level of evaluation. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for a unified social-psychological theory of evaluative self-awareness which could account for findings now classed under separate headings such as test anxiety, self-awareness, and social facilitation.     

Study of a cognitive effects model in Dohsa‐hou for the elderly

This study investigates the primary factors responsible for cognitive performance improvements as a result of dohsa‐hou (Japanese body‐oriented psychotherapy) for the elderly. The study divided participants into two homogeneous groups: an experimental group that attempted to improve upright balance by performing dohsa‐hou, and a control group to establish the drop‐off period for the effect of performing the given activities. The task processing time of Stroop Test and body sway and the situational anxiety during task processing of Stroop Tests were measured before and after the dohsa‐hou and drop‐off period. The results confirm that only the experimental group improved in body sway, had a shorter Stroop Color Test processing time and lower situational anxiety. From this study, it has been identified that: (a) information‐processing capacities spared for posture control are affected by distribution of processing resources towards solving other cognitive tasks; and (b) the effect of the release of attention from threat‐related information due to a decrease in attentional bias, which accompanied the decrease in situational anxiety, are primary factors in improving cognitive task performance.     

Anxiety and selective attention in obsessive-compulsive disorder

Recently, there has been increasing evidence for information-processing deficits in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). While impairments in selective attention have been identified to be central to the symptomatology of OCD, the role that situational anxiety plays in attentional processes has not been fully explored. Previous research findings were limited to tasks containing anxiety-relevant materials, only permitting for the evaluation of the impact of anxiety on simultaneous cognitive processing. Furthermore, it has not yet been determined whether the impact of anxiety is limited to selective attention or is indicative of a more general cognitive impairment. This study was designed to examine the role that situational anxiety plays in selective attention impairments. OCD participants and controls were presented with an anxiety producing statement and a neutral statement, followed by the Stroop Task. Results indicated that situational anxiety plays a significant role in the performance of tasks that require selective attention in OCD. A significant deterioration was detected in performance on selective attention tasks for the OCD participants after confronting anxiety-provoking scenarios, as compared to neutral scenarios. Anxiety did not impair performance on simple reading tasks. Possible explanations are discussed.     

Thought listing and endorsement measures of self-referential thinking in test anxiety

Abstract

The primary purpose of the present study was to examine cognitive reactions of high and low test-anxious subjects while performing a task of extreme difficulty. A sample of 44 subjects (28 females, 16 males) attempted a difficult analogies task and then reported their thoughts during the task. Subjects also completed the Sarason Test Anxiety Scale and several other self-report measures of their cognitive reactions to the task. Thought listings were classified according to their referent (self, task, or unrelated) and their valence (positive, negative, or neutral). Correlational analyses were then performed with the various measures and revealed an association between test anxiety and reports of negative thoughts involving the self. Test anxiety was not related significantly to the number of thoughts involving the task nor to actual performance on the task. However, test-anxious subjects did report more negative expectancies for their performance and greater cognitive interference during the task. Negative self-expectancies were also related to more negative self thoughts, fewer positive self thoughts, and fewer positive task-related thoughts. The results are interpreted as further evidence for both the role of negative self-related cognitions in the experience of test anxiety and the usefulness of unstructured measures in anxiety research.     

Stereotype threat undermines intellectual performance by triggering a disruptive mental load

Research on stereotype threat has repeatedly demonstrated that the intellectual performance of social groups is particularly sensitive to the situational context in which tests are usually administered. In the present experiment, an adaptation of the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices Test was introduced as a measure of cognitive ability. Results showed that individuals targeted by a reputation of intellectual inferiority scored lower on the test than did other people. However, when the identical test was not presented as a measure of cognitive ability, the achievement gap between the target and the control group disappeared. Using heart rate variability indices to assess mental workload, our findings showed that the situational salience of a reputation of lower ability undermined intellectual performance by triggering a disruptive mental load. Our results indicate that group differences in cognitive ability scores can reflect different situational burdens and not necessarily actual differences in cognitive ability.     

不同类型考试焦虑影响考试成绩的差异模式

调查了440名高中生,以不同类型考试焦虑为预测变量,以掌握目标、情绪性、应对反应、考试自我效能感、成绩-接近目标、成绩-回避目标、担忧、学习和考试技能、认知干扰为中介变量,期末数学考试成绩为最终结果变量,探讨不同类型考试焦虑影响考试成绩的模式。结果表明:不同类型考试焦虑具有不同的影响考试成绩的模式,即存在认知主导型模式(简称C模式)、生理唤醒主导型模式(简称P模式)、技能缺乏主导型模式(S模式)等三种不同的模式。担忧是C模式中的主要中介变量,P模式的主要特征是担忧对情绪性存在显著影响,S模式的特点是中介变量较少,学习和考试技能变量受考试焦虑和考试自我效能感双重影响并作用于考试成绩。     

Effects of trait and situational self-handicapping on competitive anxiety among athletes

Initial evidence suggests that the employment of self-handicapping strategies has a beneficial effect on negative affective states associated with the perceived threat of evaluative contexts (Harris & Snyder, 1986; Leary, 1986). The present study sought to describe the type of self-handicapping behaviors demonstrated by youth athletes (N=238) as well as to assess the stress-buffering role of athlete self-handicapping on indices of competitive state anxiety. Specifically, it was hypothesized that among high trait-handicapping athletes, those who report a greater degree of performance-debilitating obstacles prior to competition would demonstrate lowered cognitive and somatic state anxiety as well as greater state self-confidence than nonhandicapping athletes. However, MANOVA results indicated that both high trait and situational self-handicappers demonstrate elevated state anxiety immediately prior to competition. Results are discussed in relation to the possible role of state anxiety as a salient self-handicapping strategy within competitive sport.     

Predicting post-event processing in social anxiety disorder following two prototypical social situations: State variables and dispositional determinants

This study investigated self-reported state (anxiety, physical symptoms, cognitions, internally focused attention, safety behaviors, social performance) and trait (social anxiety, depressive symptoms, dysfunctional self-consciousness) predictors of post-event processing (PEP) subsequent to two social situations (interaction, speech) in participants with a primary diagnosis of social anxiety disorder (SAD) and healthy controls (HC). The speech triggered significantly more intense PEP, especially in SAD. Regardless of the type of social situation, PEP was best predicted by situational anxiety and dysfunctional cognitions among the state variables. If only trait variables were considered, PEP following both situations was accounted for by trait social anxiety. In addition, dysfunctional self-consciousness contributed to PEP-speech. If state and trait variables were jointly considered, for both situations, situational anxiety and dysfunctional cognitions were confirmed as the most powerful PEP predictors above and beyond trait social anxiety (interaction) and dysfunctional self-consciousness (speech). Hence, PEP as assessed on the day after a social situation seems to be mainly determined by state variables. Trait social anxiety and dysfunctional self-consciousness also significantly contribute to PEP depending on the type of social situation. The present findings support dysfunctional cognitions as a core cognitive mechanism for the maintenance of SAD. Implications for treatment are discussed.     

Effects of trait and situational self-handicapping on competitive anxiety among athletes

Initial evidence suggests that the employment of self-handicapping strategies has a beneficial effect on negative affective states associated with the perceived threat of evaluative contexts (Harris & Snyder, 1986; Leary, 1986). The present study sought to describe the type of self-handicapping behaviors demonstrated by youth athletes (N=238) as well as to assess the stress-buffering role of athlete self-handicapping on indices of competitive state anxiety. Specifically, it was hypothesized that among high trait-handicapping athletes, those who report a greater degree of performance-debilitating obstacles prior to competition would demonstrate lowered cognitive and somatic state anxiety as well as greater state self-confidence than nonhandicapping athletes. However, MANOVA results indicated that both high trait and situational self-handicappers demonstrate elevated state anxiety immediately prior to competition. Results are discussed in relation to the possible role of state anxiety as a salient self-handicapping strategy within competitive sport.     

Fighting self-control failure: Overcoming ego depletion by increasing self-awareness

According to the limited strength model (Muraven, Tice & Baumeister, 1998), exerting self-control causes ego depletion: a depletion of cognitive resources resulting in poorer performance on later self-control tasks. Previous studies have demonstrated a positive effect of self-awareness on self-control performance. The present study examined whether the occurrence of ego depletion can be circumvented by increasing self-awareness. Initially depleted participants who received a neutral prime exhibited the classic ego depletion pattern: their performance on a subsequent physical self-control task decreased significantly. In contrast, no decrease in performance was observed for depleted participants who were exposed to a self-awareness prime. The latter group performed equally well compared to low depleted participants.     

Evaluation of two test-anxiety reduction treatments in a secondary prevention program

The study evaluated the effectiveness of both a new anxiety management training program and a cognitive modification procedure as part of a secondary prevention effort to identify and treat test anxiety early in the academic career of college students. Subjects were 40 college freshmen who had been identified as high test-anxious in an initial mail-out survey of the Test Anxiety scale. Subjects were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: anxiety management training, a cognitive modification procedure, and a no-treatment control group. Results indicated that both the cognitive modification and anxiety management training treatments were effective in reducing test anxiety on a posttreatment administration of the Test Anxiety scale. Especially interesting, a significant difference in academic performance emerged between treatment and control groups three semesters after treatment, underscoring the preventive value of the program.     

Prediction of job satisfactoriness for workers with severe handicaps from aptitudes,personality, and training ratings

The predictive validity of General Aptitude Test Battery and Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire scores were compared to standard training ratings made by vocational instructors against the criterion of work performance measured by the Minnesota Satisfactoriness Scales for a sample of 106 employees with severe handicaps. The psychometric test variables were not correlated with the criterion; however, the training ratings were consistently predictive of the job satisfactoriness scores. These results suggest that the employment potential of job applicants with disabilities can be assessed more accurately using situational training ratings, as opposed to standardized psychometric test scores.     

Are there gender differences in cognitive reflection? Invariance and differences related to mathematics

ABSTRACT

Cognitive reflection is recognized as an important skill, which is necessary for making advantageous decisions. Even though gender differences in the Cognitive Reflection test (CRT) appear to be robust across multiple studies, little research has examined the source of the gender gap in performance. In Study 1, we tested the invariance of the scale across genders. In Study 2, we investigated the role of math anxiety, mathematical reasoning, and gender in CRT performance. The results attested the measurement equivalence of the Cognitive Reflection Test – Long (CRT- L), when administered to male and female students. Additionally, the results of the mediation analysis showed an indirect effect of gender on CRT-L performance through mathematical reasoning and math anxiety. The direct effect of gender was no longer statistically significant after accounting for the other variables. The current findings suggest that cognitive reflection is affected by numerical skills and related feelings.     

考试焦虑影响考试成绩的基本模式

以整合的思路、建构包括九个中介变量的考试焦虑影响考试成绩的结构方程模型。用AM和MG两种路径分析方式相结合的方法．发现考试焦虑对中介变量的影响甚于中介变量对考试成绩的影响。考试自我效能感、成绩-接近目标、认知干扰是受考试焦虑影响和影响考试成绩程度比较一致的中介变量(简称为“一致性”的中介变量),成绩-回避目标定向、担忧、学习和考试技能变量屑于“非一致性”的中介变量。掌握目标定向、情绪性和应付反应作为中介变量不具有实际意义。     

TEST ANXIETY AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE: THE ROLE OF MUSCULAR AND ATTENTIONAL DEMANDS*

In experiment 1, the attentional demands of two fine (finger movements) and two gross (arm movements) motor tasks were empirically determined. In experiment 2, the effects of test condition (stress) and anxiety trait on motor performance were analyzed. A significant interactive effect appeared: the performance of high-trait-anxious subjects was impaired under evaluative conditions in fine and/or attentionally demanding tasks, but not in gross and attentionally simple tasks. As test conditions and anxiety trait have proved to arouse physiological alterations and aversive cognitive representations, the selective performance impairment found can be attributed to interferences on finger effectors or proprioceptors and to attentional overload, respectively.     

Test anxiety and ego-threatening stress: Over- (and under-) estimation of emotional reactivity

Abstract

This study examined discrepancies between subjective and objective measures of state anxiety as a function of test anxiety in undergraduates. Under evaluative stress conditions, state anxiety was assessed in terms of (a) self-reported cognitive and somatic anxiety, (b) behavioral reactivity (motor and facial tension, avoidance comments and avoidance of eye contact), (c) physiological arousal (heart rate and skin resistance), and (d) cognitive and motor task performance. Participants high in test anxiety showed disproportionately greater self-reported than objective state anxiety. In contrast, those low in test anxiety showed lower self-reported than objective anxiety. The high- and the low-test-anxiety groups differed only in self-reported emotional reactivity. In line with current cognitive theories of anxiety, overestimation of reactivity in high-test anxiety, as well as underestimation in low-test anxiety, are conceptualized as a hypervigilance bias and an avoidance bias, respectively, in processing internal cues, i.e., prioritization and inhibition of attention to one's own behavioral and physiological signs of distress.     

The effects of an appraisal manipulation: Affect,intrusive cognitions,and performance for two cognitive tasks

We examined the relationship between trait measures of general appraisal and test anxiety, state measures of stress appraisals, affect, and intrusive cognition, and performance measures on two cognitive tests (mental math and Raven matrices). Participants were randomly assigned to threat, challenge, or control conditions that were created by manipulating both primary and secondary appraisals. We predicted that the threat condition would lead to more negative affect, stress appraisals, intrusive cognitions, and more errors. While our manipulated conditions led to inconsistent effects, path analyses tended to confirm predictions that negative task appraisals and trait test anxiety lead to negative affect and to intrusive cognitions, and that for mental math test performance a path from intrusive cognitions to test errors was established. The importance of understanding dispositionaland situational variables and their interactions during stress encounters are discussed, as is future research involving the general appraisal dimension. The authors wish to thank the many students who acted as experimenters and helped with data entry. Thanks go to James Johnson, Ann Schuller, and Brandon Vancura for all their hard work. Special thanks go to Roger Lott for his expert performance as the main investigator in the threat and challenge conditions. An enormous debt of gratitude also goes to my wife Kathy for all her patience and support, and for her help with the audio tapes used in this study. This study was completed as partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master’s Degree for the first author. Portions of this work will be presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, 1997.     

考试自我效能感是考试焦虑影响考试成绩的中介变量

本文采用结构方程的统计分析技术．依据Baron(1986)提出的确定中介变量的规则和标准．对265名中学生的特质考试焦虑、考试自我效能感、数学期末考试成绩的关系进行了探讨。考试焦虑,考试自我效能感和数学考试成绩是三个潜变量。结果表明,考试焦虑通过考试自我效能感这一中介变量对考试成绩产生影响,考试自我效能感对考试成绩有直接的影响作用,是考试焦虑影响考试成绩的中介变量。     

The association of anxiety,depression, and worry symptoms on cognitive performance in older adults

Emerging research suggests that a relationship exists between the cognitive aspects of anxiety (e.g. worry) and cognitive decline in older adults. The current study examined the association between anxiety, depressive, and worry symptoms on cognitive performance. Participants were 156 older adults enrolled in the Nathan Kline Institute-Rockland Sample Study (NKI-RS). Hierarchical linear regression analysis was used to determine the unique associations of anxiety, depressive, and worry symptoms on cognitive performance as measured by the Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery (Penn CNB), the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS), and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT). Worry symptoms were a significant predictor of Penn CNB social cognition, complex cognition, executive function, and episodic memory performance as well as RAVLT immediate and short-delay recall, but not of D-KEFS performance or RAVLT long-delay recall. In contrast, anxiety and depressive symptoms had few unique associations with cognitive performance. Given that worry symptoms have a negative impact on many aspects of neurocognitive performance, they may have utility in predicting and preventing cognitive decline in older adults.