目标性意图与执行性意图调节情绪反应的效果比较

目标性意图和执行性意图作为目标的不同形式,对情绪调节的影响有待探讨。本研究试图考察目标性意图和执行性意图与表达抑制相结合之后,在调节情绪反应方面的作用。实验采用主观报告和生物反馈的方法对58名大学生进行测试。结果发现：（1）执行性意图组被试在观看负性和中性图片时对自身情绪唤醒度的评价均显著低于目标性意图组,在观看负性图片时其情绪唤醒度也显著低于控制组。（2）执行性意图组被试在各项生理反应指标上均显著低于目标性意图组和控制组,主要表现为形成执行性意图的个体在皮肤电导增加量、皮温降低量和指脉增加量上均显著低于形成目标性意图或不形成任何意图的个体。上述结果表明,相较于仅仅给出情绪体验下调目标的目标性意图,与表达抑制结合在一起的执行性意图能有效下调个体的负性情绪反应。     

学龄前儿童关于图画作者意图的认知发展

通过两可形状图、两可动作图和局限视野图三个实验,考察了3-6岁儿童对图画作者意图与其作品问关系的认知发展.结果表明:3-6岁儿童对图画作者意图的理解能力随年龄增长逐渐提高;儿童的知觉经验、社会经验以及图画作品的知觉信息完整性均影响儿童对图画作者意图的认知.     

儿童对假装中的心理表征及意图的理解

心理表征和意图是假装中两种最重要的心理成分,关于年幼儿童是否能理解假装中的这两种心理成分,研究者们得出了不尽相同的结论。一种观点认为3岁儿童就能理解到假装中的心理层面(心理表征、意图);另一种观点则认为儿童到了6岁都仅仅把假装理解为一种外表上看起来像某物的行为,并不能理解到假装中的心理层面(心理表征、意图),而恰恰对假装中的心理层面的理解才是假装理解的关键方面。这些争论可能与测试问题的推论方向与提问方式、对抑制控制能力的要求、假装动作与心理状态的平衡、任务情景与现实生活情景的联系、实验材料呈现方式等方面的差异有关。未来研究可以从结合执行功能、区分假装主体和假装旁观者、采用内隐的测试方法、关注与假装相关的其他能力的发展等角度,对儿童理解假装中的心理表征和意图这一问题进行深入研究。     

视空工作记忆负载对场景主旨加工的影响

本研究采用工作记忆任务和场景辨别任务相结合的双任务范式探究客体工作记忆负载 (实验1)和空间工作记忆负载 (实验2) 对场景主旨辨别的影响。结果发现: (1) 与无负载条件相比, 客体负载条件下的非参辨别力指数(A’)明显下降, 而空间负载条件下A’无明显变化; (2) 随着场景图片呈现时间的延长, 场景辨别任务的A’逐渐提高; (3) 对自然场景和人工场景匹配情况下的A’ 明显高于对自然与自然或者人工与人工匹配情况下的A’。由此可见, 场景主旨识别, 特别是基本水平的场景主旨辨别, 与客体工作记忆共享部分认知资源, 而不与/很少与空间工作记忆共享认知资源; 在识别过程中, 上级水平范畴识别优先于基本水平范畴识别, 进一步支持了上级水平范畴优先的主旨层级加工观点。     

孤独症儿童动作发展障碍的神经机制

动作发展障碍(Developmental motor disorders)是孤独症谱系障碍的常见特征。通过系统回顾孤独症儿童动作发展障碍的神经科学研究, 发现γ-氨基丁酸和5-羟色胺浓度的改变及γ-氨基丁酸相关蛋白和Shank蛋白的表达异常不仅会损害中枢神经系统的发育, 而且还能导致突触兴奋性与抑制性失衡, 进而改变孤独症儿童小脑和大脑皮层运动区的功能连接。孤独症儿童小脑、基底神经节和胼胝体结构的改变对全脑的连通性产生了负面影响。神经生化机制和脑结构的异常共同导致了脑功能的异常, 最终造成孤独症儿童的动作发展障碍。此外, 动作发展障碍与孤独症核心症状共同的神经基础主要包括镜像神经元系统紊乱, 丘脑、基底神经节和小脑异常以及SLC7A5和PTEN 基因突变。未来研究需要关注与运动密切相关的其他神经递质, 如乙酰胆碱和多巴胺; 探索动作发展障碍神经网络的动态机制及其形成; 剖析该障碍的神经机制和自闭症核心症状神经机制的相互作用。     

镜像等效或守恒及其打破：从行为到认知神经机制的研究证据

镜像等效或守恒是动物与人类个体对两侧对称自然物体的一种进化自适应加工。但是, 这种知觉特性会妨碍包含镜像字符的文字阅读学习。阅读者有必要学会利用镜像泛化抑制的“去学习”机制, 打破镜像等效或守恒, 以获得识别镜像字符的能力。这一过程中, 左侧梭状回皮层通过与早期视觉皮层、顶叶皮层和口语脑网络的交互作用, 逐渐发展出一个可以识别镜像字符的视觉词形区(visual word form area, VWFA)。今后的研究需要关注两半球及其连合纤维在镜像等效或守恒加工中的作用、镜像泛化与抑制的详尽加工机制及其对镜像书写的影响、正常汉语儿童的汉字镜像泛化加工等问题。     

目标与非目标身份特征的范畴间差异对多身份追踪的促进作用

以数字和字母为实验材料, 考察了多身份追踪任务中目标与非目标的身份特征范畴性差异对目标追踪与身份识别的影响, 并探讨了其可能的认知加工机制。实验1A让被试追踪5个目标, 并操作目标与非目标的身份特征从无差异(目标与非目标为相同的数字)、范畴内差异(目标与非目标为各不相同的数字)到范畴间差异(目标为各不相同的数字, 非目标为各不相同的字母)变化, 发现随着目标与非目标差异水平的提高, 追踪正确率也显著提高。实验1B通过变化追踪目标数量为4和5操作追踪负荷, 发现中等负荷条件下(目标数量为5)实验结果与实验1A相同, 即目标与非目标身份特征的范畴内差异和范畴间差异均可促进追踪表现。实验2考察了目标与非目标身份特征的范畴间差异水平对追踪表现与身份识别的影响。结果发现随着范畴间差异水平的提高, 被试的追踪表现与身份识别表现都得到了显著提高, 但身份识别表现低于追踪表现。对可能解释以上现象的工作记忆理论、分组理论以及多身份追踪模型进行了分析讨论。     

反向对抗逻辑范式的创立与证实——人工语法PDP对抗逻辑的改进

人工语法对抗逻辑范式不能排除相似性和辨别力,导致自动反应不纯粹甚至虚假或无法检测到。本研究创立反向对抗逻辑范式,采用单因素(相容/对抗条件)被试间设计:内隐学习阶段将肯定标签与语法A绑定,否定标签与语法B绑定;测量阶段相容条件组对语法A和B做与学习阶段一致的判断,对抗条件组对语法B做与学习阶段对抗的肯定判断。实验证明:(1)外显否定标签可与语法B绑定学习而获得自动化特征,产生内隐联结自动化。(2)内隐否定知识比肯定知识更自动,知识从肯定转为否定易,从否定转为肯定难。(3)反向对抗逻辑范式能有效检测到自动反应,不受语法间形式相似性和辨别力影响。(4)首次析出高概率判断偏向效应,得到纯粹受控反应。     

动作理解因境而异:动作加工中情境信息的自动整合

针对动作理解的机制,模拟论主张大脑自发模拟他人的动作,就相同的动作其理解也相同,而理论论则认为人们基于合理性原则对他人动作进行推理,相同的动作发生在不同的情境时会有不同的理解。但以往研究所采用动作材料的运动学特性和发生情境存在共变,其难以区分动作理解是支持模拟论还是理论论。通过两项实验,采用动画制作技术来产生有无约束情境下的追逐动作,以指示动作加工过程的脑电μ抑制为指标,对前述两种观点进行了检验。其中,在约束情境中存在障碍物,追逐者需改变运动方向以绕过障碍物,从后方逐渐趋近目标;而无约束情境中不存在障碍物,但追逐者依然保持与存在约束情景下相同的运动模式。结果发现,当追逐动作发生在存在约束的情境时,其基于合理性原则推测可获得清晰的动作目标,该条件下的μ抑制程度高于不存在约束情境的条件(实验1);而当仅追逐者运动,即趋近的目标不确定时,虽然有约束和无约束情境间的物理差异与实验1相同,但条件间μ抑制的差异消失(实验2);且上述μ抑制并非与注意相关的枕叶α活动的泛化。该结果提示,动作发生的情境信息影响人们对动作的理解,即基于推理过程理解动作,支持理论论观点。     

目标探测对记忆提取的影响

采用经典的"学习–再认"范式,在测验阶段设置了目标探测的干扰任务,通过比较目标探测和分心拒绝是否会对记忆提取产生不同的影响,以进一步探讨提取干扰与再认记忆之间的关系。结果发现,无论对目标进行显性(实验1)还是隐性(实验2)的探测反应,目标探测下旧词的再认反应均要比分心拒绝下更优,表明外显记忆的提取也会受到注意资源的调节。但更为重要的是,在辨别力指数(d′)及判断标准(C)上的差异分析发现,目标探测并没有提高被试的再认水平,而是降低了被试的判断标准,使得被试在目标探测条件下更容易对词做出"旧"反应。这种反应倾向与目标探测的动作反应方式无关,也不受词汇的编码加工水平深浅的调节。由此可见,外显记忆提取并非完全的"自动化加工",仍会受到注意资源的调节。     

Interplay between action and movement intentions during social interaction

Observing the movements of another person influences the observer's intention to execute similar movements. However, little is known about how action intentions formed prior to movement planning influence this effect. In the experiment reported here, we manipulated the congruency of movement intentions and action intentions in a pair of jointly acting individuals (i.e., a participant paired with a confederate coactor) and investigated how congruency influenced performance. Overall, participants initiated actions faster when they had the same action intention as the coactor (i.e., when participants and the coactor were pursuing the same conceptual goal). Participants' responses were also faster when their and the coactor's movement intentions were directed to the same spatial location, but only when participants had the same action intention as the coactor. These findings suggest that observers use the same representation to implement their own action intentions that they use to infer other people's action intentions and also that a dynamic, multitiered intentional mechanism is involved in the processing of other people's actions.     

Action embellishment: an intention bias in the perception of success

Na?ve theories of behavior hold that actions are caused by an agent's intentions, and the subsequent success of an action is measured by the satisfaction of those intentions. However, when an action is not as successful as intended, the expected causal link between intention and action may distort perception of the action itself. Four studies found evidence of an intention bias in perceptions of action. Actors perceived actions to be more successful when given a prior choice (e.g., choose between 2 words to type) and also when they felt greater motivation for the action (e.g., hitting pictures of disliked people). When the intent was to fail (e.g., singing poorly), choice led to worse estimates of performance. A final experiment suggested that intention bias works independent from self-enhancement motives. In observing another actor hit pictures of Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama, shots were distorted to match the actor's intentions, even when it opposed personal wishes. Together these studies indicate that judgments of action may be automatically distorted and that these inferences arise from the expected consistency between intention and action in agency.     

Control of impulsive emotional behaviour through implementation intentions

Past research has established that people can strategically enhance or override impulsive emotional behaviour with implementation intentions (Eder, Rothermund, & Proctor, 2010). However, it is unclear whether emotional action tendencies change by intentional processes or by habit formation processes due to repeated enactment of the intention (or both). The present study shows that forming implementation intentions is sufficient to modulate emotional action tendencies. Participants received instructions about how to respond to positive and negative stimuli on evaluation trials but no such trials were actually presented. Results showed that merely intending to approach and avoid affective stimuli influenced emotional action tendencies in a modified affective Simon task in which affective valence was irrelevant. An affective Simon effect (i.e., faster reactions when the valence of the stimulus corresponded with the valence of the movement) was observed when participants intended evaluations with affectively congruent responses (i.e., positive–approach, negative–avoid); in contrast, the effect was reversed in direction when participants planned evaluations with incongruent responses (i.e., positive–avoid, negative–approach). Thus, implementation intentions can regulate implicit emotional responses even in the absence of possible habit formation processes. Implications for dual-system accounts of emotion regulation are discussed.     

Intention as action under development: why intention is not a mental state

This paper constructs a theory according to which an intention is not a mental state but an action at a certain developmental stage. I model intention on organic life, and thus intention stands to action as (e.g.) tadpole stands to frog. I then argue for this theory by showing how it overcomes three problems: intending while (1) merely preparing, (2) not taking any steps, and (3) the action is impossible. The problems vanish when we see that not all actions are mature. Just as some frogs (such as tadpoles) are immature frogs, some actions (such as intentions) are immature actions.     

Shaping of Reach-to-Grasp Kinematics by Intentions: A Meta-Analysis

When we reach to grasp something, we need to take into account both the properties of the object we are grasping and the intention we have in mind. Previous research has found these constraints to be visible in the reach-to-grasp kinematics, but there is no consensus on which kinematic parameters are the most sensitive. To examine this, a systematic literature search and meta-analyses were performed. The search identified studies assessing how changes in either an object property or a prior intention affect reach-to-grasp kinematics in healthy participants. Hereafter, meta-analyses were conducted using a restricted maximum likelihood random effect model. The meta-analyses showed that changes in both object properties and prior intentions affected reach-to-grasp kinematics. Based on these results, the authors argue for a tripartition of the reach-to-grasp movement in which the accelerating part of the reach is primarily associated with transporting the hand to the object (i.e., extrinsic object properties), the decelerating part of the reach is used as a preparation for object manipulation (i.e., prepare the grasp or the subsequent action), and the grasp is associated with manipulating the object's intrinsic properties, especially object size.     

Do Preschoolers Appreciate That Identical Actions May Be Motivated by Different Intentions?

Four studies investigated whether 4- and 5-year-olds recognize the potential for diversity in the intentions that motivate a given action. Children heard stories in which 2 characters performed the same action (e.g., running) yet had different desires (e.g., to be home for dinner vs. to be healthy and strong). Children were asked to determine what each character was trying to do (e.g., get somewhere fast vs. get some exercise). Five-year-olds successfully assigned different intentions to the characters, despite the fact that their actions were identical. Four-year-olds, in contrast, tended to attribute the same intention to characters performing the same action, even though their desires clearly differed. Children of this age were, nevertheless, capable of attributing different intentions to characters performing different actions (Study 2). Four-year-olds' difficulty differentiating two intentions for a given action persisted despite several task simplifications (Studies 3 and 4), suggesting that children's early concept of intention may be intimately tied to action.     

Unravelling intention: Distal intentions increase the subjective sense of agency

Experimental studies investigating the contribution of conscious intention to the generation of a sense of agency for one’s own actions tend to rely upon a narrow definition of intention. Often it is operationalized as the conscious sensation of wanting to move right before movement. Existing results and discussion are therefore missing crucial aspects of intentions, namely intention as the conscious sensation of wanting to move in advance of the movement. In the present experiment we used an intentional binding paradigm, in which we distinguished between immediate (proximal) intention, as usually investigated, and longer standing (distal) intention. The results showed that the binding effect was significantly enhanced for distal intentions compared to proximal intentions, indicating that the former leads to stronger sense of agency. Our finding provides empirical support for a crucial distinction between at least two types of intention when addressing the efficacy of conscious intentions.     

理解双人肢体运动表达的友好和敌对意图的ERP证据

已有的意图理解神经成像研究大多关注理解单一个体的中性或负性意图的脑功能定位, 而大脑理解依靠双人肢体运动表达的友好和敌对意图的动态时间过程尚不清楚。本研究记录了20名健康被试完成三种不同意图推理任务时的脑电成分。三种意图分别为：1)友好意图; 2)敌对意图; 3)中性无互动意图。行为结果发现理解敌对意图的反应时最短。电生理学结果表明, 在额中区的N250 (170~270 ms)上, 中性意图比友好和敌对意图均更负, 且友好意图比敌对意图也更负; 在大脑右半球的P300 (270~450 ms)上, 敌对意图比友好和中性意图均更正, 且友好意图比中性意图也更正。对友好和敌对意图的N250和P300进行溯源分析分别定位于额中回(BA10)和脑岛(BA45)。结果表明大脑在多个阶段对双人肢体运动表达的互动意图进行分类理解, 对负性敌对意图表现出较早的理解且晚期持续性的评价加工。     

主动控制感在大脑表征中的时空标记

主动控制感是主动动作过程中产生的控制自身动作, 进而控制外部环境的主观体验。构成动作主动控制感的核心要素是主观意图与结果反馈。本研究试图通过操控这两个核心要素的不同属性, 借助脑磁图等技术, 探寻主动控制感在大脑额-顶为主的脑网络中前-后馈的作用方式及时空特异性标记, 并建构新的认知神经理论模型。这将有利于理解人类动作的产生及后效、为相关精神类疾病的临床诊断提供更加客观的参照标准。     

Can unpredicted outcomes be intended? The role of outcome-beliefs in children's judgments of intention

An adult-like concept of intention includes a deliberate action to achieve a goal and a belief that one's action (if successful) will cause the desired outcome. For example, good outcomes caused by accident or by chance are not believed to be caused intentionally. In two experiments, we asked whether children understand this connection between intentions and outcomes. Children played two games in which actions could produce unintended outcomes (i.e., causes were unplanned). Children sometimes received a desirable reward independent of intention. In Experiment 1, 4- and 5-year-olds mistakenly claimed they had intended the desirable outcome even when it was unexpected. Four-year-olds judged that they had not intended a deliberate action if it did not yield a rewarding outcome. Experiment 2 demonstrates that 6-year-olds seldom make these errors. The results suggest that 4- and 5-year-old children have not yet attained an adult-like concept of intention. Their inaccurate judgments regarding their intentions, given a rewarding yet unexpected outcome, can be explained by a positivity bias.