The influence of experimentally created extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test

We examined the influence of extrapersonal associations (Olson & Fazio, 2004)—associations that neither form the basis of the attitude nor become activated automatically in response to the object—on the Implicit Association Test (Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) by experimentally creating both attitudes and extrapersonal associations. The results revealed that participants who were given extrapersonal information that was inconsistent with their own attitudes were affected by this information when they later performed an IAT. They exhibited significantly reduced IAT scores compared to participants who were provided attitude-consistent extrapersonal information. This attenuation of the IAT effect occurred despite the fact that participants rated the source of the attitude-inconsistent extrapersonal information as irrational and foolish. On the other hand, the extrapersonal associations did not influence a subliminal priming measure in Experiment 1, nor a personalized version of the IAT (Olson & Fazio, 2004) in Experiment 2. These measures proved sensitive to the attitude, regardless of the congruency of the extrapersonal information.     

内隐联结测验(IAT)研究回顾与展望

Greenwald等人提出的内隐联结测验(Implicit Association Test,IAT),引起了心理学家的广泛关注,是当前心理学研究的热点之一。虽然IAT以其突出的优点被广泛应用,但由于它仅仅有五年的历史,所以还不够成熟,在程序、效度等方面有很多争议。本文对以前的有关研究成果进行了总结,并从IAT的程序、效度和变式三个方面进行了概括,展望了今后的研究方向。     

Two bases of the compatibility effect in the Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Four experiments are reported, investigating the mechanisms underlying the compatibility effect in the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). All experiments involved two IATs: flower IAT, in which the target categories were flowers and insects, and number IAT, involving even and odd numbers as target categories. In Experiment 1, using the standard IAT procedure, the two IATs produced equal IAT effects, despite large differences in rated valence contrast between flowers and insects and between even and odd numbers. Experiment 2 used a procedure developed by Klauer and Mierke (2005) and produced results consistent with the view that valence plays a role in the flower IAT but not in the number IAT. Experiments 3 and 4 used manipulations similar to those developed by Rothermund and Wentura (2004) and showed that these manipulations affected the flower IAT and number IAT differently. The results provide converging evidence that the two types of IAT effects—one based on valence and one based on familiarity—are empirically dissociable.     

Two bases of the compatibility effect in the Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Four experiments are reported, investigating the mechanisms underlying the compatibility effect in the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). All experiments involved two IATs: flower IAT, in which the target categories were flowers and insects, and number IAT, involving even and odd numbers as target categories. In Experiment 1, using the standard IAT procedure, the two IATs produced equal IAT effects, despite large differences in rated valence contrast between flowers and insects and between even and odd numbers. Experiment 2 used a procedure developed by Klauer and Mierke (2005) and produced results consistent with the view that valence plays a role in the flower IAT but not in the number IAT. Experiments 3 and 4 used manipulations similar to those developed by Rothermund and Wentura (2004) and showed that these manipulations affected the flower IAT and number IAT differently. The results provide converging evidence that the two types of IAT effects-one based on valence and one based on familiarity-are empirically dissociable.Experiments 1and 2 reported in this paper were conducted as an honours project by Marie Peek-O'Leary under the supervision of Sachiko Kinoshita. Parts of this paper were presented at the 44th Annual Meeting of the Psychonomic Society held in Vancouver, Canada, in November, 2003.     

IAT效应的心理机制研究述评

介绍了IAT效应的心理机制的主要理论,包括概念联结提取模型、刺激-反应匹配理论、随机游动模型、任务集切换代价理论和图形-背景不对称性理论,并提出除概念联结提取模型外,其他理论关注另外可能的因素对IAT效应的作用,从而间接否定IAT效应和概念联结的对应联系,消解了IAT作为内隐测量方法的有效性。最后分析了这些理论的不足,认为IAT研究需要深入探讨个体在IAT反应中的心理活动过程。     

Minimizing the influence of recoding in the Implicit Association Test: the Recoding-Free Implicit Association Test (IAT-RF)

Recoding processes can influence the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) in a way that impedes an unequivocal interpretation of the resulting compatibility effects. We present a modified version of the IAT that aims to eliminate recoding, the IAT-RF (short for "IAT-recoding free"). In the IAT-RF, compatible and incompatible assignments of categories to responses switch randomly between trials within a single experimental block. Abandoning an extended sequence of consistent category-response mappings undermines recoding processes in the IAT-RF. Two experiments reveal that the IAT-RF is capable of assessing compatibility effects between the nominally defined categories of the task and effectively prevents recoding. By enforcing a processing of the stimuli in terms of their task-relevant category membership, the IAT-RF eliminates the confounding of compatibility effects with task switch costs and becomes immune against biased selections of stimuli.     

Minimizing the influence of recoding in the Implicit Association Test: The Recoding-Free Implicit Association Test (IAT-RF)

Recoding processes can influence the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) in a way that impedes an unequivocal interpretation of the resulting compatibility effects. We present a modified version of the IAT that aims to eliminate recoding, the IAT-RF (short for “IAT–recoding free”). In the IAT-RF, compatible and incompatible assignments of categories to responses switch randomly between trials within a single experimental block. Abandoning an extended sequence of consistent category–response mappings undermines recoding processes in the IAT-RF. Two experiments reveal that the IAT-RF is capable of assessing compatibility effects between the nominally defined categories of the task and effectively prevents recoding. By enforcing a processing of the stimuli in terms of their task-relevant category membership, the IAT-RF eliminates the confounding of compatibility effects with task switch costs and becomes immune against biased selections of stimuli.     

Understanding the role of executive control in the Implicit Association Test: Why flexible people have small IAT effects

The goal of the present research was to investigate the role of three central-executive functions—switching of mental sets, inhibition of prepotent responses, and simultaneous storage and processing (i.e., working-memory capacity)—in accounting for method variance in the Implicit Association Test (IAT). In two studies, several IATs with unrelated contents were administered along with a battery of central-executive tasks, with multiple tasks tapping each of the above executive functions. Method variance was found to be related to the switching factor, but not to the inhibition factor. There was also evidence for a small independent contribution of the working-memory capacity factor. The findings constrain process accounts of the IAT, lending support to an account in terms of task-set switching, and they have consequences for applications.     

Implicit Association Test (IAT) Studies Investigating Pitch-Shape Audiovisual Cross-modal Associations Across Language Groups

Previous studies have shown that Chinese speakers and non-Chinese speakers exhibit different patterns of cross-modal congruence for the lexical tones of Mandarin Chinese, depending on which features of the pitch they attend to. But is this pattern of language-specific listening a conscious cultural strategy or an automatic processing effect? If automatic, does it also apply when the same pitch contours no longer sound like speech? Implicit Association Tests (IATs) provide an indirect measure of cross-modal association. In a series of IAT studies, conducted with participants with three kinds of language backgrounds (Chinese-dominant bilinguals, Chinese balanced bilinguals, and English speakers with no Chinese experience) we find language-specific congruence effects for Mandarin lexical tones but not for matched sine-wave stimuli. That is, for linguistic stimuli, non-Chinese speakers show advantages for pitch-height congruence (high-pointy, low-curvy); no congruence effects were found for Chinese speakers. For non-linguistic stimuli, all participant groups showed advantages for pitch-height congruence. The present findings suggest that non-lexical tone congruence (high-pointy, low-curvy) is a basic congruence pattern, and the acquisition of a language with lexical tone can alter this perception.     

Intentional faking of the single category Implicit Association Test and the Implicit Association Test

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) provides a relative measure of implicit association strengths between target and attribute categories. In contrast, the Single Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT) measures association strength with a single attribute category. This can be advantageous if a complementary category--as used in the IAT--cannot be composed or is undesired. If the SC-IAT is to be a meaningful supplement to the IAT, it should meet the same requirements. In an online experiment with a large and heterogeneous sample, the fakability of both implicit measures was investigated when measuring anxiety. Both measures were fakable through specific instruction (e.g., "Slow down your reactions") but unfakable through nonspecific faking instruction even though nonspecific instruction was given immediately before the critical blocks (e.g., "Alter your reaction times"). When comparing the methodological quality of both implicit measures, the SC-IAT had lower internal consistency than the IAT. Moreover, with specific faking instructions, the SC-IAT was possible to fake to a larger extent than the IAT.     

IAT在内隐助人态度上的应用

内隐联想测验（Implicit Association Test）是研究内隐社会认知的一种新方法,根据内隐联想测验的基本原理,采用IAT对内隐助人态度进行了研究。主要采用词汇测验,目标概念是助人性和非助人性词汇,属性概念是积极词和消极词。通过比较目标概念和属性概念在不同联结情况下被试完成分类任务所用的反应时之差,来确定其是否具有倾向于助人的内隐态度。结果发现：1）IAT词汇测验中,助人性信息和积极性词汇之间的平均反应时小于助人性信息和消极性词汇之间的平均反应时,且差异显著;2）IAT测验中,男女被试间无显著性差异。研究表明,IAT可以应用于内隐助人态度的研究。     

Implicit memory for new associations: The pictorial influence

A series of experiments was conducted in order to show that implicit memory for new associations is not always dependent on semantic integrative processing during study. The material used in these experiments differed from traditional studies that employed pairs of unrelated words. Instead, targets (words in Exps. 1 and 2 and pictures in Exps. 3 and 4) were encoded in the context of an unrelated picture. The implicit tests used were word-stem completion (Exps. 1, 2, and 3) and picture-fragment identification (Exp. 4). The explicit test was word-stem cued recall (Exps. 1, 2, and 3) and picture-fragment cued recall (Exp 4). For implicit tests, context effects were not obtained using words as targets with a non-integrative semantic-elaboration encoding task (Exp. 1). When an integrative semantic-elaboration encoding task was used, a standard context effect emerged (Exp. 2) for implicit memory. Importantly, with pictures as targets, context effects appeared without integrative semantic encoding (Exps. 3 and 4). However, context effects were obtained for all conditions of cued recall. Results are discussed with regard to the concept of unitization.     

内隐联想测验研究进展述评

内隐联想测验作为基于反应时范式的内隐社会认知研究方法,自1998年由Greenwald提出后,得到了广泛的应用。但因其本身具有一定局限性,近10年来,研究者们对这一方法进行了不断地修正和改进,先后发展出了GO／NO—GO联想任务、外部情感西蒙作业等;近几年又提出了单类内隐联想测验、单靶内隐联想测验和单属性内隐联想测验等,这些方法丰富充实了内隐联想测验,是对Greenwald提出的IAT的继承和发展。     

Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test.

Three studies examined the relationship between the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and explicit attitudes. In the 1st and all subsequent studies, the lack of any correlation between the IAT and explicitly measured attitudes supports the view that the IAT is independent from explicit attitudes. Study 2 examined the relationships among the IAT, explicit attitudes, and behavior and found that the explicit attitudes predicted behavior but the IAT did not. Finally, in Study 3 it was found that the IAT was affected by exposing participants to new associations between attitude objects, whereas the explicit attitudes remained unchanged. Taken together, these results support an environmental association interpretation of the IAT in which IAT scores reflect the associations a person has been exposed to in his or her environment rather than the extent to which the person endorses those evaluative associations.     

Greenwald提出的内隐联想测验介绍

内隐联想测验(Implicit Association Test,简称IAT)是Greenwald等于1998年提出的一种新的内隐社会认知的研究方法,其采用的是一种计算机化的辨别分类任务,以反应时为指标,通过对概念词和属性词之间的自动化联系的评估进而来对个体的内隐态度等进行间接测量。该文先对内隐联想测验的由来、原理进行了介绍,再从性能及应用两方面对已有的相关研究进行了归纳、整理和论述。最后,通过分析指出该方法符合现代心理测量学的最新发展方向,将有着强大的生命力。     

Assessing autobiographical memory: the web-based autobiographical Implicit Association Test

By assessing the association strength with TRUE and FALSE, the autobiographical Implicit Association Test (aIAT) [Sartori, G., Agosta, S., Zogmaister, C., Ferrara, S. D., &; Castiello, U. (2008). How to accurately detect autobiographical events. Psychological Science, 19, 772–780. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02156.x] aims to determine which of two contrasting statements is true. To efficiently run well-powered aIAT experiments, we propose a web-based aIAT (web-aIAT). Experiment 1 (n?=?522) is a web-based replication study of the first published aIAT study [Sartori, G., Agosta, S., Zogmaister, C., Ferrara, S. D., &; Castiello, U. (2008). How to accurately detect autobiographical events. Psychological Science, 19, 772–780. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02156.x; Experiment 1]. We conclude that the replication was successful as the web-based aIAT could accurately detect which of two playing cards participants chose (AUC?=?.88; Hit rate?=?81%). In Experiment 2 (n?=?424), we investigated whether the use of affirmative versus negative sentences may partly explain the variability in aIAT accuracy findings. The aIAT could detect the chosen card when using affirmative (AUC?=?.90; Hit rate?=?81%), but not when using negative sentences (AUC?=?.60; Hit rate?=?53%). The web-based aIAT seems to be a valuable tool to facilitate aIAT research and may help to further identify moderators of the test’s accuracy.     

Implicit bias in impression formation: associations influence the construal of individuating information

The present research investigated the influence of group‐related evaluative associations on the process of impression formation. In particular, we expected the impact of a target's category membership on the construal of ambiguous behaviour to be moderated by perceivers' evaluative associations related to the target category. Associative strength was further expected to have an indirect effect on dispositional inference, mediated by its impact on behaviour identification. Results support both of these assumptions. Moreover, the influence of evaluative associations on impression formation was not moderated by perceivers' motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Rather, motivation to control moderated only the relation between evaluative associations and the explicit endorsement of prejudiced beliefs about the target group in general, such that explicit prejudice endorsement was correlated with evaluative associations only for perceivers low, but not for those high in motivation to control. Implications for prejudice control are discussed. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

IAT测验对攻击性内隐社会认知的应用研究

采用内隐联想测验（IAT）对攻击性内隐社会认知进行了研究。结果显示：1．IAT测验中,攻击性信息和积极性词汇之间的平均反应时小于其和消极性词汇之间的平均反应时,且差异显著;2．攻击性IAT测验与攻击性自陈式量表所测结果之间无显著性相关;3．攻击性IAT测验中,男女被试之间无显著性差异。研究表明IAT测验可以应用于攻击性内隐社会认知的研究。     

数学性别刻板印象的内隐联想测验研究

本研究采用IAT实验设计,考察大学生的内隐数学-性别刻板印象.结果发现,IAT方法能检测到大学生存在"男性比女性更擅长数学"的内隐数学-性别刻板印象;IAT所测量到的内隐数学-性别刻板印象有性别差异,所测得的内隐数学-性别刻板印象没有专业差异; IAT与SEB所测得的结果不相同,IAT和SEB测得的是被试记忆中复杂网络联结的不同方面.