Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?

It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.     

How little do we need for 3-D shape perception?

How little do we need to perceive 3-D shape in monocular natural images? The shape-from-texture and shape-from-shading perspectives would motivate that 3-D perception vanishes once low-level cues are disrupted. Is this the case in human vision? Or can top-down influences salvage the percept? In this study we probe this question by employing a gauge-figure paradigm similar to that used by Koenderink et al (1992, Perception & Psychophysics 52 487-496). Subjects were presented degraded natural images and instructed to make local assessments of slant and tilt at various locations thereby quantifying their internal 3-D percept. Analysis of subjects' responses reveals recognition to be a significant influence thereby allowing subjects to perceive 3-D shape at high levels of degradation. Specifically, we identify the 'medium-blur' condition, images approximately 32 pixels on a side, to be the limit for accurate 3-D shape perception. In addition, we find that degradation affects the perceived slant of point-estimates making images look flatter as degradation increases. A subsequent condition that eliminates texture and shading but preserves contour and recognition reveals how bottom-up and top-down cues can combine for accurate 3-D shape perception.     

Islamic education: why is there a need for it?

This article examines the need for the Muslim community of Britain to educate their youth with regard to a Muslim ‘way of life’. The aim of this study is to examine the theological basis for Islamic education. It further explores the status of Muslim schools in Britain with regard to culture and religion. This study highlights the exclusiveness of Islamic education owing to Muslim ethnic cultures and the necessity for a more intercultural‐oriented Islamic education.     

Body-extension versus body-incorporation: Is there a need for a body-model?

This paper investigates the role of a pre-existing body-model that is an enabling constraint for the incorporation of objects into the body. This body-model is also a basis for the distinction between body extensions (e.g., in the case of tool-use) and incorporation (e.g., in the case of successful prosthesis use). It is argued that, in the case of incorporation, changes in the sense of body-ownership involve a reorganization of the body-model, whereas extension of the body with tools does not involve changes in the sense of body-ownership.     

On the need for real dialogue: What's wrong with monological contractualism?

According to T.M. Scanlon, the core idea of contractualism consists in the claim that what we are morally required to do is conceptually grounded in the value of living in “relations of mutual recognition” with others. Specifically, Scanlon's contractualist idea of “living in relations of mutual recognition with others” requires that one act only in ways that cannot be reasonably rejected by all of those affected, according to the results of a hypothetical reflection conducted within one's own mind. I claim, however, that Scanlon is mistaken to rely on a single individual's hypothetical reflection (monological reflection) to determine what no one affected could reasonably reject. Instead, following Jürgen Habermas, I claim that we must engage in actual dialogue with all who stand to be affected, in order to live in relations of mutual recognition with others.     

Does the need for linguistic expression constitute a problem to be solved?

This paper has two objectives. The first is to formulate a critique of present-day cognitive linguistics (CL) concerning the inner workings of the cognitive system during language use, and the second is to put forward an alternative account that is inspired by the phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty. Due to its third-person methodology, CL views language use essentially as a problem-solving activity, as coping with two subproblems: the problem of minimum and maximum, which consists in selecting the appropriate expression out of an unlimited multitude of possibilities, and the problem of the underdetermination of signification. This approach presupposes a notion of an isolated subject and a representationalist view of perception. We defend an alternative view of man's relation to the world in which intersubjectivity is constitutive of embodied subjectivity and which exchanges the representationalist view of perception for a direct nonrepresentationalism. We describe the ensuing view of linguistic action as intra- and interpersonal “all-at-onceness.” This approach dismisses the two subproblems CL implicitly identifies as constitutive of language use. The first is countered by rethinking what it means to be a situated speaking subject and results in the concept of “style.” The second is tackled by opposing the concept of “overdetermination” to CL's notion of underdetermination.     

No need for an intention to deceive? Challenging the traditional definition of lying

According to the traditional definition of lying, somebody lies if he or she makes a believed-false statement with the intention to deceive. The traditional definition has recently been challenged by non-deceptionists who use bald-faced lies to underpin their view that the intention to deceive is no necessary condition for lying. We conducted two experiments to test whether their assertions are true. First, we presented one of five scenarios that consisted of three different kinds of lies (consistent bald-faced lies, conflicting bald-faced lies, and indifferent lies). Then we asked participants to judge whether the scenario at hand was a lie, whether the speaker intended to deceive somebody, and how they would judge the behavior in terms of morality. As expected, our results indicate that the intention to deceive is not a necessary condition for lying. Participants rated indifferent lies to be lies and judged that no intention to deceive was involved in these cases. In addition, all bald-faced lies were evaluated as lies. However, participants widely ascribed an intention to deceive to bald-faced lies, which thus might not apply as counterexamples against the traditional definition of lying. Besides, lies are judged as morally wrong regardless of an intention to deceive.     

‘Pluralistic accountability’ for the psychological therapies? Holding the tension between diversity's virtues and the need for accountability

ABSTRACT

This paper argues that the field of counselling and psychotherapy needs to find values-congruent ways of managing, and creatively engaging with, the challenging tension between accountability and diversity in therapy work. The authors strongly support the preservation of pluralism and diversity in therapy practice, in the face of the increasingly urgent, anxiety-driven demands for audit, regulation and accountability typifying Late Modernity. It is argued that if accountability itself is to be ‘evidence-based’, then incorporating a relational dimension is essential; for if relationship factors are central to successful therapy, then accountability frameworks must themselves be founded on/in ‘relationship’. The arguments against formal institutional regulation of the psychological therapies in relation to the ineffectiveness of systems are rehearsed, and alternative, more values-congruent approaches considered. In making a case for ‘pluralistic accountability’, a detailed case-study of Bristol's developing local directory of therapists is offered, illustrating how local initiative can deliver good-enough accountability, avoiding the many negative side-effects of more didactic, centralised systems. The paper concludes that innovation and diversity in the field are more likely to be preserved if approaches can be found that hold and embrace the tensions between accountability and diversity, rather than seeking ‘solutions’ that prematurely and inappropriately resolve them.     

The need for marital violence prevention efforts: A behavioral—cognitive secondary prevention program for engaged and newly married couples

The purpose of this paper is threefold: (a) to review research indicating that prevention efforts are needed for marital violence; (b) to present the rationale for a prevention approach derived from a behavioral—cognitive, social learning perspective; and (c) to describe a new behavioral—cognitive secondary prevention program that we are developing for engaged and newly married couples at risk for marital violence. Given these goals, we first present data demonstrating that physical aggression is often introduced early in a relationship and is likely to continue without intervention. After reviewing questions about the efficacy of marital violence treatment programs, we propose that prevention is a potentially important means of reducing and eliminating relationship violence. We then review behavioral—cognitive models of marital violence and the empirical data supporting these models. Based upon this review, we introduce a new behavioral—cognitive program (PREP/SAVE) designed to prevent relationship violence. Finally, we briefly present our pilot work and planned research on the efficacy of PREP/SAVE, along with some issues for consideration by future researchers.     

Visual temporal processing in dyslexia and the magnocellular deficit theory: the need for speed?

A controversial question in reading research is whether dyslexia is associated with impairments in the magnocellular system and, if so, how these low-level visual impairments might affect reading acquisition. This study used a novel chromatic flicker perception task to specifically explore temporal aspects of magnocellular functioning in 40 children with dyslexia and 42 age-matched controls (aged 7-11). The relationship between magnocellular temporal resolution and higher-level aspects of visual temporal processing including inspection time, single and dual-target (attentional blink) RSVP performance, go/no-go reaction time, and rapid naming was also assessed. The Dyslexia group exhibited significant deficits in magnocellular temporal resolution compared with controls, but the two groups did not differ in parvocellular temporal resolution. Despite the significant group differences, associations between magnocellular temporal resolution and reading ability were relatively weak, and links between low-level temporal resolution and reading ability did not appear specific to the magnocellular system. Factor analyses revealed that a collective Perceptual Speed factor, involving both low-level and higher-level visual temporal processing measures, accounted for unique variance in reading ability independently of phonological processing, rapid naming, and general ability.     

Social power tactics and subordinates’ compliance at work: The role of need for cognitive closure

IntroductionThe present research highlights the importance of subordinates’ motivation for compliance-related phenomena.ObjectivesThe aim of this research was to examine subordinates’ willingness to comply with their supervisors’ harsh and soft power tactics as a function of subordinates’ need for cognitive closure.MethodTwo cross-sectional studies were conducted in five different Italian organizations, namely, a bank, a federation of small businesses, a security company, an oil company, and a hospital.ResultsIt was found that subordinates high (vs. low) on need for closure reported greater willingness to comply with harsh social power tactics, but lower willingness to comply with soft power tactics.ConclusionOur findings nuance prior research by showing that soft (vs. harsh) power tactics are not always the most effective power tactics in organizational setting (e.g., Pierro et al., 2004; Raven et al., 1998).     

When does gender diversity enhance team performance? The dual need for visionary leadership and team tenure

Teams in organizations are becoming more gender diverse as women continue to participate more in the workforce than ever before. Prior theory and research indicate that the characteristics of the team influence whether gender diversity in a team is an asset or a detriment. As such, this research explores a contingency model of the relation between gender diversity and team performance and looks to understand conditions that make this relation positive or negative. Specifically, we examine how leader vision communication (i.e., visionary leadership) affects the relation between gender diversity and team performance. Results from a sample of 595 full-time employees across 106 teams in China indicate that leader vision communication moderates the relation between gender diversity and team performance such that when leader vision communication is low gender diversity decreases team performance and when leader vision communication is high gender diversity has no significant relation with team performance. We also test whether team tenure changes this relationship. Our results suggest that gender diversity improves team performance when both leader vision communication and team tenure are high. The findings in our sample demonstrate that gender diversity can help teams enhance performance, but only when the conditions are right for gender-diverse teams to flourish.     

Do we need visual subjects?

It is widely accepted within contemporary philosophy of perception that the content of visual states cannot be characterized simply as a list of represented features. This is because such characterization leads to the so-called ‘Many Properties’ problem, that is, it does not allow us to explain how the visual system is able to distinguish between scenes containing different arrangements of the same features. The usual solution to the Many Properties problem is to characterize some basic elements of content as subjects, to which features are attributed by a predication-like relation. In this paper, I reconsider this solution and claim that the Many Properties problem can be solved without postulating such subjects. What is more, I argue that an alternative approach has stronger justification given the empirical data concerning human vision.     

The need for self-control in achievement tests: Changes in students’ state self-control capacity and effort investment

In the present research, we investigated the relation between changes in students’ state self-control capacity and their motivational test-taking effort over the course of an achievement test. Thereby, we considered trait self-control as a major predictor of achievement-related behavior as a covariate. N?=?1840 apprentices repeatedly rated their state self-control capacity and the test-taking effort they invested while working on a 140-min achievement test in mathematics and science. Using growth curve analyses, our results revealed correlated decreases in state self-control capacity and the test-taking effort invested over the course of the test. Furthermore, we found that trait self-control helped to keep state self-control capacity and test-taking effort at a higher level over the course of the test. Our results support the assumption of the process model of self-control that waning self-control capacity is reflected in reduced motivational effort. Furthermore, our findings provide evidence that self-control might play a crucial role in students’ test-taking behavior in large-scale assessment studies. By modeling changes in state self-control capacity and effort investment while considering trait self-control, we provide an alternative approach for investigating self-control-dependent processes and the underlying mechanisms of self-control in achievement situations.     

“We really need to know what pastoral counseling Is”—Reflections for colleagues in other disciplines

This article suggests that pastoral counselors in the field must vigorously engage in the process of self-interpretation to colleagues in allied professions. It accordingly attempts to offer a bilateral approach to such interdisciplinary communication. Part One focuses on the psychology of id, superego and ego as an exegetical principle to describe recent trends in the field. Part Two offers a complementary theological account of pastoral counseling, seen from the inside, focusing on the image of the pastoral counselor as theviator or fellow pilgrim along the way.Chaplain and Lecturer in Religion at Wellesley College for thirteen years