Dual-task attention deficits in dysphoric mood

The attentional functioning of nondysphoric, mildly dysphoric, and moderately to severely dysphoric college students was tested using the attentional blink (AB) paradigm. These groups performed equally well at reporting a single target appearing in a rapidly presented stream of stimuli. All groups showed an AB, with report sensitivity for a 2nd target being reduced when the 2 targets were presented less than 0.5 s apart. Nondysphoric and mildly dysphoric participants showed the same size ABs, but the ABs for moderately to severely dysphoric participants were larger and longer. As predicted, the results showed that moderately to severely dysphoric individuals have attentional impairments. These impairments, however, were evident only in the more demanding dual-task condition.     

Involuntary autobiographical memories in dysphoric mood: A laboratory study

The frequency and characteristics of involuntary autobiographical memories were compared in 25 stable dysphoric and 28 non-dysphoric participants, using a new laboratory-based task (Schlagman & Kvavilashvili, 2008). Participants detected infrequent target stimuli (vertical lines) in a simple vigilance task and recorded any involuntary autobiographical memories that came to mind, mostly in response to irrelevant words presented on the screen. Dysphoric participants reported involuntary memories as frequently and as quickly as non-dysphoric participants and their memories were not repetitive intrusive memories of negative or traumatic events. Additional content analysis showed that dysphoric participants did not recall more memories of objectively negative events (e.g., accidents, illnesses, deaths) than non-dysphoric participants. However, significant group differences emerged in terms of a mood congruency effect whereby dysphoric participants rated their memories as more negative than non-dysphoric participants. Moreover, the proportion of negatively rated involuntary memories was related to lower mood ratings at the end of the session in the dysphoric but not in the non-dysphoric group. Finally, groups did not differ on several memory characteristics such as vividness, specificity (high in both groups) and rates of rehearsal (low in both groups). Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for research on depression and autobiographical memory are discussed.     

Involuntary autobiographical memories in dysphoric mood: a laboratory study

The frequency and characteristics of involuntary autobiographical memories were compared in 25 stable dysphoric and 28 non-dysphoric participants, using a new laboratory-based task (Schlagman & Kvavilashvili, 2008). Participants detected infrequent target stimuli (vertical lines) in a simple vigilance task and recorded any involuntary autobiographical memories that came to mind, mostly in response to irrelevant words presented on the screen. Dysphoric participants reported involuntary memories as frequently and as quickly as non-dysphoric participants and their memories were not repetitive intrusive memories of negative or traumatic events. Additional content analysis showed that dysphoric participants did not recall more memories of objectively negative events (e.g., accidents, illnesses, deaths) than non-dysphoric participants. However, significant group differences emerged in terms of a mood congruency effect whereby dysphoric participants rated their memories as more negative than non-dysphoric participants. Moreover, the proportion of negatively rated involuntary memories was related to lower mood ratings at the end of the session in the dysphoric but not in the non-dysphoric group. Finally, groups did not differ on several memory characteristics such as vividness, specificity (high in both groups) and rates of rehearsal (low in both groups). Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for research on depression and autobiographical memory are discussed.     

Sex role egalitarianism and marital violence

This study explores the link between sex role egalitarianism and marital violence using a sample of men enrolled in either substance abuse treatment programs (N=71) or in anger management programs (N=44). It was found that men in both treatment programs had very similar levels of egalitarianism and violence in their relationships. Using the combined sample, it was found that having attitudes approving of marital violence and using “severe” violence accounted for a significant portion of the variance in sex role egalitarianism, whereas use of “minor” violence did not account for significant variance in egalitarianism. These results suggest that sex role egalitarianism may be a meaningful indicator for spouse abuse.     

Sex role development and teenage fertility-related behavior

Data from a 1975 survey of 369 females and 325 males aged 16-17 were analyzed to shed light on the relationship between the maturity of adolescent women and their sexual behavior and contraceptive practice. A straightforward decision-making process was found among males, but more complicated influences exist for females. When the data were submitted to regression and chi-squared analyses, it was found that whereas sexually active adolescents had more liberal sexual attitudes than virgins, their sex role attitudes were more stereotypical than virgins. Then the 2 groups were subdivided into virgins who did not intend to have premarital intercourse (20%); virgins who planned or considered premarital intercourse (40%); adolescents who experienced intercourse prior to age 16 (20%); and those who experienced intercourse after age 16 (20%). It was found that the virgins who did not intend to have premarital intercourse held the most stereotypical sex role attitudes, followed by sexually active women, and that virgins planning or considering intercourse held the least stereotypical views of all. It is suggested that this occurred because these adolescents were more mature and had resolved sexual identity problems earlier without resorting to intercourse. Birth control use was found to be more effective among the adolescents who experienced intercourse after age 16. Further studies are underway to test the hypotheses that the more mature a woman is when she experiences intercourse, the more likely it is that her development will be enhanced and that her contraceptive behavior will be effective.     

Sex role orientation and domains of self-esteem

The relation of sex role orientation to self-esteem was more closely examined by the inclusion of five distinct self-esteem domains in this study of Chinese adolescents. Analysis of variance showed that the masculine and androgynous groups were superior in academic, appearance, and general self-esteem than the feminine and undifferentiated groups. The former two groups were also higher in physical ability self-esteem than the feminine group. The superiority of the androgynous group was noted in the domain of social self-esteem too. Results of multiple regression were in general supportive of the masculinity model in that masculinity was most strongly associated with self-esteem, whereas the effect of femininity was much less evident. Analyses also showed that for males, femininity was related to academic, appearance, and general self-esteem, whereas for females, femininity was found somewhat related to social self-esteem. Results of this study were discussed in terms of the agentic and expressive qualities of different sex role and self-esteem domains.The very capable assistance in data analysis by Kit Yi Wong is gratefully acknowledged.     

Sex differences in anger expression,depressed mood,and aggression in children and adolescents

The current study examined anger expression styles and their relationship to levels of depressed mood and aggressive behavior in male and female children and adolescents. Measures of anger, anger expression, and depressed mood were collected from both children and their parents. Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that anger expression significantly predicted sadness but not aggression for females, after accounting for age and anger level. Among males, anger expression was important in predicting aggression but not sadness, whereas age and anger level best predicted sadness. These results suggest that age, anger level, and anger expression may be risk factors for depression and aggression among children and adolescents. Sex appears to be an important factor in anger expression styles and related depression and aggressive behavior.     

Stress and mood: the moderating role of activity inhibition

The present research tested the hypothesis that activity inhibition (as measured by the picture story exercise) moderates the relationship between stress and mood. Based on prior research that shows that (a) individuals high in activity inhibition restrain emotional and motivational impulses and (b) inhibiting negative emotion may lead to further emotional impairments, we assumed that individuals high in activity inhibition show evidence of increased negative mood when they are confronted with stressful events. Study 1 found evidence of increased negative mood-relevant thought among individuals high in activity inhibition who were confronted with the threat of social rejection. Study 2 found high negative mood among individuals high in activity inhibition who experienced many daily hassles. Also, participants high in activity inhibition reported a disproportionally higher amount of daily hassles in the middle (but not at the beginning) of a university semester. We suggest that this pattern of results can be accounted for by Wegner's (1994) theory of ironic effects of the suppression of thought and emotion.     

Sex role conformity in homosexual and heterosexual males

Nine principal components were extracted from the scores of 26 homosexual and 26 heterosexual males matched on age, education, occupation status, and sampling frame on Adjective Check List, Bem Sex Role Inventory, Chapin Social Insight Test, Experience Inventory, and Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire scales selected to represent a variety of "masculine" and "feminine" sex role attributes. The four most general varimax factors, accounting for 48% of the total variance, were: I) "Feminine Openness," II) "Masculine Boldness," III) "Reflection," and IV) "Novelty Seeking." Factor scores were constructed and indicated that the homosexual sample was significantly more identified with Factor I (p < .00l; 17% of total variance). There was no significant difference between the samples on Factor II, nor on the remaining two general factors which were not sex typed.     

Sex role attitude and perception of psychological abuse

This study focuses on the relationship between sex role attitude—traditionality and nontraditionality—and perception of psychological abuse. It was hypothesized that nontraditional women would be more adept at perceiving abuse than traditional women. Two hundred and fourteen subjects were polled using the Attitude Toward Women Scale. The 30 most traditional and 30 least traditional women were compared in terms of their reactions to vignettes depicting marital interactions. Several factors were analyzed in an attempt to explain why the nontraditional women were more sensitive in their perception of psychological abuse. Among these factors were educational level, tolerance for conflict, participation in consciousness-raising groups, psychological sophistication, and religious background.     

Sex role identification and young women's irrational beliefs

The present study was designed to examine the relationship between young women's beliefs about approval, frustration, and dependency and their sex-role identification. Sixty-six college women responded to a questionnaire which contained the Irrational Beliefs Test (Jones, 1969) and the Multidimensional Sex Role Inventory (MSRI; Bernard, 1981). As predicted, women who score high in irrational beliefs concerning approval, frustration, and dependency also scored higher on the MSRI scale pertaining to anxiety and neuroticism than did their more rational counterparts. Also, the high irrational group scored lower than did the low irrational group on the MSRI scale measuring instrumental-agentic traits. These results have two implications for feminist RET psychotherapists. First, they clarify the value of using instruments to assess both irrational beliefs and sex role identification in treatment planning. Secondly, they sensitize the psychotherapist to the impact of sex-role socialization and identification on the psychological adjustment of young women.This article is based in part on a master's thesis completed by Tracy L. Vining, M.A.The authors thank William Tooke, Ph.D., for his helpful advice.Tracy L. Vining, M.A., is a School Psychologist at the Wayne Finger Lakes BOCES in Rushville, N.Y. William P. Gaeddert, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the Psychology Department at SUNY-Plattsburgh, and Naomi B. McCormick is a Professor in the Psychology Department at SUNY-Plattsburgh and a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy.     

Sex role concepts in eight- and twelve-year olds

Abstract.— Children's perception of sex roles was sought, taking Piaget's cognitive developmental theory and the role theory of Sarbin as points of departure. It was proposed that sex role perception could be described on two levels. The first level entailed a sex role enactment based upon superficial understanding, whereas the second level involved a sex role taking based upon a deeper understanding.
The measuring device consisted of a standardized interview of 20 narratives, 10 covering the first level 10 the second level. Each narrative described the objectively observable behavior (level 1) or the supposedly constant personality characteristics (level 2) of a typical boy or girl. The subjects, 8- and 12-year olds, listened to each story and then were asked whether a typical boy, girl, or both would have performed the behavior or expressed the personality quality. The results suggest that both 8-and 12-year-old children understand the superficial as well as the deep aspects of sex roles. However, the younger children accept the sex role differences, whereas the older children are starting to question them. There was also evidence of a developmental difference in experiencing sex roles between boys and girls. The 8-year-old girls in the study most strongly recognized the sex role differences and therefore were the most rigid in their sex role conceptions. The 12-year-old girls were the most liberal group in their approach to sex roles. The boys fell in-between, with small developmental differences.     

Sex,sex role,and psychomotor reminiscence

Effects of sex and sex role on psychomotor reminiscence and task proficiency were investigated in samples of masculine males, masculine females, feminine males, and feminine females, as defined by the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Sex contributed significantly to the variance of reminiscence and to the slopes of prerest practice gains, as others have found. Sex role contributed virtually nothing to the variance of reminiscence, but feminine subjects of both sexes reached generally higher levels of performance than masculine subjects. Sex and sex role effects were orthogonal at all points of comparison.     

Depressed mood: The role of negative thoughts,self-consciousness,and sex role stereotypes

Research typically finds that depression is twice as common among women as among men. This may relate to differences in socialization that result in different emotions, cognitions, and coping reactions. Sex-role stereotypes, employment and marital status, and differential social pressures may also be significant in making women more vulnerable to the development of depression. Women may have less decision-making power, face more adverse life events, and have limited access to resources, which may lead to feelings of helplessness and low self-esteem. Low self-esteem and negative cognitions about the self in turn may be proximal factors predictive of negative mood. Additionally, women may be more prone to ruminative self-focus rather than active coping, a significant risk factor for depression. This study examined individual predictors of depressed mood for each sex, including coping, self-esteem, negative thoughts, self-consciousness (rumination), as well as social factors such as the endorsement of sex-role stereotypes and decision-making power in the family. Results indicated that social factors were not related to depressed mood in either sex, but were related to coping styles and self-esteem. Depressed mood was associated with individual characteristics, such as avoidant coping styles, social anxiety for women, and ruminative self-focus for men. Regression analysis showed that coping through denial and negative thoughts explained depressed mood, and the latter was particularly true for men. These results point to the significance of examining both individual and social factors when attempting to understand depression in men and women.