Exploring the positive and negative implications of facial feedback

The facial feedback effect (e.g., Strack et al., 1988) is explored in three experiments. It was found that when someone lowers their eyebrows, following instructions, their mood becomes more negative. If, however, they are instructed to raise their eyebrows they become more surprised by facts. Finally, if people are instructed to wrinkle their noses, then odors are evaluated as more unpleasant. While providing further diverse evidence for facial feedback, the experiments are also considered in the context of facial muscular paralysis induced as part of cosmetic treatments using botulinum toxin. The research presented here supports the previously suggested idea that such treatments could reduce depression, but other possible psychological impacts of such treatments are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

The immediate effects of positive and negative feedback signals

Reaction time priming techniques were used in 4 experiments to assess the effects of feedback signals on arousal, response, and attentional processes. The letter A, C, or F served as a priming signal presented 100 ms before a target letter. Emotional value was manipulated by using A, C, and F to reflect good, average, and poor performance on the previous trial. The positive (A), neutral (C), and negative (F) primes did not differ in their effects on arousal. At the response level, positive and neutral primes exerted similar effects, and negative primes led to response inhibition. Regarding attention, positive and negative primes attracted greater attention than neutral primes, with the effect stronger for positive than for negative primes. These effects disappeared when the emotional value of the stimuli was removed, and the effects were not a consequence of expectancies or performance factors extending across trials.     

The effects of positive and negative feedback and reward on originality

Forty subjects participated in a remote associates verbal learning task. Subjects were assigned to reward or feedback and positive or negative conditions in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Subjects in the various groups performed at significantly different levels with the positive reward group producing the most remote associates, folllowed, respectively, by the negative feedback, negative reward, and positive feedback groups. It was suggested that rewarding remote assocites results in relatively flat associative gradients, wherein the subject has ready access to all associates. Conversely, punishing common associates produces emotionality which reduces the response probability of remote associates, thus producing a relatively steep associative gradient. Extrapolations to Mednick's theory of creativity were made, suggesting that creativity is under environmental control.     

Comparing the effects of positive and negative feedback in information-integration category learning

Categorical learning is dependent on feedback. Here, we compare how positive and negative feedback affect information-integration (II) category learning. Ashby and O’Brien (2007) demonstrated that both positive and negative feedback are required to solve II category problems when feedback was not guaranteed on each trial, and reported no differences between positive-only and negative-only feedback in terms of their effectiveness. We followed up on these findings and conducted 3 experiments in which participants completed 2,400 II categorization trials across three days under 1 of 3 conditions: positive feedback only (PFB), negative feedback only (NFB), or both types of feedback (CP; control partial). An adaptive algorithm controlled the amount of feedback given to each group so that feedback was nearly equated. Using different feedback control procedures, Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that participants in the NFB and CP group were able to engage II learning strategies, whereas the PFB group was not. Additionally, the NFB group was able to achieve significantly higher accuracy than the PFB group by Day 3. Experiment 3 revealed that these differences remained even when we equated the information received on feedback trials. Thus, negative feedback appears significantly more effective for learning II category structures. This suggests that the human implicit learning system may be capable of learning in the absence of positive feedback.     

Age-related changes in deterministic learning from positive versus negative performance feedback

Feedback-based learning declines with age. Because older adults are generally biased toward positive information (“positivity effect”), learning from positive feedback may be less impaired than learning from negative outcomes. The literature documents mixed results, due possibly to variability between studies in task design. In the current series of studies, we investigated the influence of feedback valence on reinforcement learning in young and older adults. We used nonprobabilistic learning tasks, to more systematically study the effects of feedback magnitude, learning of stimulus–response (S–R) versus stimulus–outcome (S–O) associations, and working-memory capacity. In most experiments, older adults benefitted more from positive than negative feedback, but only with large feedback magnitudes. Positivity effects were pronounced for S–O learning, whereas S–R learning correlated with working-memory capacity in both age groups. These results underline the context dependence of positivity effects in learning and suggest that older adults focus on high gains when these are informative for behavior.     

The effects of positive versus negative feedback on information-integration category learning

A number of studies have shown that in category learning, providing feedback about errors allows faster learning than providing feedback about correct responses. However, these previous studies used explicit, rule-based tasks in which the category structures could be separated by a simple rule that was easily verbalized. Here, the results of the first experiment known to compare the efficacy of positive versus negative feedback during information-integration category learning are reported. Information-integration tasks require participants to integrate perceptual information from incommensurable dimensions, and evidence suggests that optimal responding recruits procedural learning. The results show that although nearly all of the full-feedback control participants demonstrated information-integration learning, participants receiving either positive-only or negative-only feedback generally used explicit, rule-based strategies. It thus appears that, unlike rule-based learning, consistent information-integration learning requires full feedback. The theoretical implications of these findings for current models of information-integration learning are discussed.     

Choices between positive and negative reinforcement during treatment for escape-maintained behavior.

Positive reinforcement was more effective than negative reinforcement in promoting compliance and reducing escape‐maintained problem behavior for a child with autism. Escape extinction was then added while the child was given a choice between positive or negative reinforcement for compliance and the reinforcement schedule was thinned. When the reinforcement requirement reached 10 consecutive tasks, the treatment effects became inconsistent and reinforcer selection shifted from a strong preference for positive reinforcement to an unstable selection pattern.     

Information seeking of high- and low-anxiety subjects after receiving positive and negative self-relevant feedback

The present paper reports an experiment in which subjects received fictitious intelligence test feedback that was either negatively or positively discrepant with their self-evaluation. They were then given an opportunity to choose among several articles containing information that either derogated intelligence tests (test-disparaging information) or argued for their validity (test-supporting information). The main finding of this study consists of an interaction between the personality factor anxiety and the feedback variable: High-anxiety subjects prefer test-disparaging information significantly more in the negative feedback condition than in the positive feedback condition, whereas low-anxiety subjects show no difference in preference for test-related information as a function of the feedback condition. These results are in line with past theoretical reasoning and experimental findings showing that high-anxiety subjects feel more threatened by negative self-relevant feedback than do low-anxiety subjects.     

Effect of aerobic exercise on negative affect, positive affect, stress, and depression.

Three groups of subjects, 15 Longer-term Exercisers, 14 Short-term Exercisers, and 18 Nonexercisers completed questionnaires designed to measure negative affect associated with thoughts, negative affect associated with day-to-day experiences, positive affect associated with thoughts, and positive affect associated with day-to-day experiences, depression, and stress. All the subjects also provided a rating of their over-all general stress. The Longer-term Exercisers reported more positive affect associated with their thoughts and day-to-day experiences than the Nonexercisers. There also was a trend for the Longer-term Exercisers to report less over-all stress than the Nonexercisers.     

Effects of positive and negative feedback on behavior control in hyperactive and normal boys

The hypothesis that hyperactive boys have relatively less response to negative feedback than to positive feedback was studied. Sixteen hyperactive boys and 16 controls were compared on two tasks under different feedback conditions. Feedback conditions were no feedback, positive feedback, and negative feedback. Tasks were symbol encoding and correcting spelling words. Hyperactives and controls were compared in amount of time on-task and amount of work correctly completed. Hyperactives were on-task significantly more under conditions of negative feedback than under positive feedback, but negative feedback significantly increased errors on the spelling correction task. Controls were equally responsive to positive, negative, or no feedback. Hyperactives accomplished significantly less than controls on the coding task, but performed as well as controls on the spelling correction task, which was administered to each boy at his own level of spelling ability. The results imply that while consistent negative feedback can reduce off-task behavior for hyperactives, it can also decrease the accuracy of the work they are doing.This research was supported in part by U.S. Public Health Service Training Grant (in Biological Science) No. MH07081. This article is based on a dissertation presented to the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph. D. degree. The assistance of Dr. John A. Stern in helping with the preparation of the dissertation is gratefully acknowledged. The generous assistance of Dr. Cynthia Janes in helping prepare this paper is appreciated. The dissertation is available from University Micro-films (Order No. 74-13, 799). The assistance of Ms. B. Talent and Ms. S. Weiner in making reliability checks is gratefully acknowledged.     

Validity of perceptions during recovery from maximal exercise in men and women

The Borg Scale, widely used to measure perceptions of exercise, has not been validated for use during recovery. Heart rate was used as the validity criterion. 11 untrained men and 10 untrained women were run to exhaustion on a treadmill. Heart rate and recovery ratings were obtained at :15, :45, 1:15, 1:45, 2:30, 3:30 and 4:30 min. following exercise. No significant differences were observed between sexes for both heart rate and recovery ratings. Trend analysis showed recovery ratings to be linear between :45 and at 4:30 while heart rate is best described by two linear trends with a break point at 2:30. Percent recovery was significantly faster for recovery ratings at :45, 1:15, 1:45 and 4:30. Heart rate and recovery ratings were not significantly correlated at any time point. A perceptual scale should be designed which more closely approximates metabolic response during recovery.     

Self-ratings of positive and negative affect and retrieval of positive and negative affect memories

Abstract

Based on analysis of self-ratings of mood, positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) have been proposed as basic, orthogonal mood dimensions (Watson & Tellegen, 1985). The present study asked subjects (N = 61) to not only provide self-ratings of PA and NA terms but also to retrieve personal memories associated with those terms. Self-rated PA was associated with latency to retrieve PA- but not NA-related memories; self-rated NA was associated with latency to retrieve NA- but not PA-related memories. Self-ratings of PA and NA were not significantly correlated, nor were retrieval latencies for PA and NA memories. Individual item correlations also revealed a strong direct relationship between self-ratings and retrieval latency. The dissociations involving a non-self report measure strengthen the distinction between PA and NA, and the individual item correlations are interpreted as showing that self-ratings of affect are based upon the ease of retrieval of personal memories.     

Transient positive and negative experiences accompanying stage hypnosis.

Frequency of positive and negative experiences accompanying stage hypnosis was assessed in follow-up interviews with 22 participants of university-sponsored performances. Most subjects described their experience positively (relaxing, interesting, exciting, satisfying, illuminating, and pleasurable), but some described it negatively (confusing, silly, annoying, and frightening). Five subjects (22.7%) reported partial or complete amnesia; all were highly responsive to the stage hypnosis suggestions. One subject was completely unable to breach amnesia and felt annoyed and frightened. Five subjects (22.7%) believed the hypnotist had control over their behavior. Participants (n = 15) tested subsequently on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962) were mostly moderately to highly hypnotizable (M = 7.07), and the scores correlated significantly (r = .68) with the percentage of passed stage hypnosis suggestions.     

Within-subjects positive and negative contrast effects in rats.

Rats were given alternating 1-min. access periods to 2 tubes containing either 32% or 4% sucrose solutions for daily 6-min. test sessions. Lick rate for 32% was higher under comparison (32 vs. 4) than noncomparison (32 vs. 32) conditions; and lick rate for 4% was lower under comparison conditions (4 vs. 32) than under noncomparison conditions (4 vs. 4). All sucrose conditions were varied within subjects and both positive and negative contrast were obtained with a small n. In addition to lick rate, intake and latency measures also revealed contrast effects. Deprivation conditions altered latency but not lick rate measures of contrast. Reducing the test session to 3 min. (alternating 30-sec. access periods) did not greatly affect contrast. Additional experiments provided evidence for distinct within-days and between-days contrast effects, as well as a between-groups contrast effect.     

When friends exchange negative feedback

In four studies, we document an increase in the amount of negative feedback friends and colleagues exchange as their relationship deepens. We find that both actual and perceived relationship depth increase the amount of negative feedback people seek from and provide to each other, as well as their tendency to invest in a focal (relationship or performance) goal in response to negative feedback. The amount of positive feedback on goal pursuit, by contrast, remains stable as the relationship deepens. We attribute the increase in negative feedback to the different meaning of such feedback for people in deep versus shallow relationships: only in the context of deep relationships does negative feedback signal insufficient resource investment in the focal goal, and hence close friends and colleagues seek, provide, and respond to negative feedback.     

Contrast of frequency of positive and negative feeling state changes associated with standard and reduced cardiovascular exercise

A field investigation was conducted to assess whether cardiovascular exercise assigned at a level to maximize improvements in fitness, i.e., a standard exercise amount or 30 min. at approximately 80% maximal heart rate, differed significantly in frequency of positive exercise-induced feeling changes when contrasted with exercise that was reduced to 20 min. at approximately 65% maximal heart rate. A significantly more frequent occurrence of positive changes in feelings just after exercise (chi1(2), = 4.95, p < .05, phi(c) = .26) was noted for adults initiating programs at the reduced (n = 36; 86% positive change) vs the standard (n = 36; 64% positive change) amount of exercise. After replication, implications for adjusting exercise to increase adherence were discussed.     

The eyes have it: making positive expressions more positive and negative expressions more negative

Facial expressions frequently involve multiple individual facial actions. How do facial actions combine to create emotionally meaningful expressions? Infants produce positive and negative facial expressions at a range of intensities. It may be that a given facial action can index the intensity of both positive (smiles) and negative (cry-face) expressions. Objective, automated measurements of facial action intensity were paired with continuous ratings of emotional valence to investigate this possibility. Degree of eye constriction (the Duchenne marker) and mouth opening were each uniquely associated with smile intensity and, independently, with cry-face intensity. In addition, degree of eye constriction and mouth opening were each unique predictors of emotion valence ratings. Eye constriction and mouth opening index the intensity of both positive and negative infant facial expressions, suggesting parsimony in the early communication of emotion.     

Varieties of positive and negative priming

Numerous recent investigations have focused on a particular relation between the roles a stimulus plays in successive displays: when a stimulus ignored by a subject on one occasion is to be attended on a succeeding occasion, reaction time to that stimulus is slowed relative to a control condition. But this is but one possible case ofnegative priming. There are other ways in which negative priming might occur, and there are several varieties of positive priming as well. All these possibilities were explored in the present experiment.